Op-Amps

Operational Amplifiers Introduction The operational amplifier (op-amp) is a voltage controlled voltage source with very high gain. It is a five terminal four port active element. The symbol of the op-amp with the associated terminals and ports is shown on Figure 1(a) and (b). Positive power supply port VCC Ic+ VCC VEE non-inverting Vp input Ip In Vn inverting input Vo Io Vp Input port Output Vo port Vn Ic- VEE Negative power supply port (a) (b) Figure 1. Symbol and associated notation of op-amp The power supply voltages VCC and VEE power the operational amplifier and in general define the output voltage range of the amplifier. The terminals labeled with the “+” and the “-” signs are called non-inverting and inverting respectively. The input voltage Vp and Vn and the output voltage Vo are referenced to ground. The five terminals of the op-amp form one (complicated) node and if the currents are defined as shown on Figure 1(a) the KCL requires that In + Ip + Ic+ + Ic− + Io = 0 (1.1) Therefore for current balance we must include all currents. This is what defines an active element. If we just consider the signal terminals then there is no relationship between their currents. In particular, In + Ip + Io ≠ 0 (1.2) The equivalent circuit model of an op-amp is shown on Figure 2. The voltage Vi is the differential input voltage Vi = Vp −Vn . Ri is the input resistance of the device and Ro is the output resistance. The gain parameter A is called the open loop gain. The open loop configuration of an op-amp is defined as an op-amp circuit without any circuit loops that connect the output to any of the inputs. inputs. Vp + + Vi _ Vn Ri Ro + Vo AVi _ Figure 2. Equivalent circuit model of op-amp device In the absence of any load at the output, the output voltage is Vo = AVi = A(Vp −Vn) (1.3) Which indicates that the output voltage Vo is a function of the difference between the input voltages Vp and Vn. For this reason op-amps are difference amplifiers. For most practical op-amps the open loop DC gain A is extremely high. For example, the popular 741 has a typical open loop gain A of 200000 Vo/Vi. Some op-amps have open loop gain values as high as 108 Vo/Vi. The graph that relates the output voltage to the input voltage is called the voltage transfer curve and is fundamental in designing and understanding amplifier circuits. The voltage transfer curve of the op-amp is shown on Figure 3. Vo Saturation VCC Linear region slope=A Saturation Vi VEE Figure 3. Op-amp voltage transfer characteristics. Note the two distinct regions of operation: one around Vi=0V, the linear region where the output changes linearly with respect to input, and the other at which changes in Vi has little affect on Vo, the saturation region (non-linear behavior). Circuits with operational amplifiers can be designed to operate in both of these regions. In the linear region the slope of the line relating Vo to Vi is very large, indeed it is equal to the open loop gain A. For a 741 op-amp powered with VCC= +10V and VEE= -10V, Vo will saturate (reach the maximum output voltage range) at about ±10 V. With an A=200,000V/V saturation occurs with an input differential voltage of 10/200,000 = 50µV, a very small voltage. The ideal op-amp model From a practical point of view, an ideal op-amp is a device which acts as an ideal voltage controlled voltage source. Referring to Figure 2, this implies that the device will have the following characteristics: 1. No current flows into the input terminals of the device. This is equivalent to having an infinite input resistance Ri=∞. In practical terms this implies that the amplifier device will make no power demands on the input signal source. 2. Have a zero output resistance (Ro=0). This implies that the output voltage is independent of the load connected to the output. In addition the ideal op-amp model will have infinite open loop gain ( A → ∞ ). The ideal op-amp model is shown schematically on Figure 4. Ip Vp + + Vi _ Vn + Vo AVi _ In Figure 4. Ideal op-amp model. In summary, the ideal op-amp conditions are: I p = In = 0 Ri → ∞ R0 = 0 A→∞ No current into the input terminals ⎫ ⎪ Infinite input resistance ⎪ ⎬ Zero output resistance ⎪ ⎪ Infinite open loop gain ⎭ (1.4) Even though real op-amps deviate from these ideal conditions, the ideal op-amp rules are very useful and are used extensively in circuit design and analysis. In the following sections we will see how to use these rules and the typical errors associated with these assumptions. Note that when using the ideal op-amp rules we should remember that they are limits and so we must perform our analysis by considering them as limits. For example if we consider the equation V (1.5) V0 = AVi ⇒ Vi = 0 A Which in turn implies that Vi → 0 as A → ∞ . However, this does not mean that V0 → 0 but rather that as A → ∞ , Vi → 0 in such a way that their product AVi = V0 ≠ 0 . Negative Feedback and Fundamental Op-Amp Configurations. By connecting the output terminal of the op-amp with the inverting terminal of the device we construct a configuration called the negative feedback configuration as shown on Figure 5. The presence of the biasing voltages of the op-amp, VCC and VEE, is assumed and will not be shown explicitly in the following circuits. The operational amplifier is assumed to be in the linear region (see Figure 3.) feedback path Vn Vo Vi Vp Figure 5. Basic negative feedback configuration. The closed loop gain of this device is now given by the ratio: G≡ V0 Vi (1.6) In negative feedback, a certain fraction of the output signal, voltage Vo, is fed back into the inverting terminal via the feedback path. The block diagram configuration of the negative feedback amplifier is shown on Figure 6. This fundamental feedback circuit contains a basic amplifier with an open-loop gain A and a feedback circuit described by the parameter β. β Vo Source Vs + Σ β Vi Α Vo Load Figure 6. Block diagram of an ideal negative feedback amplifier The feedback circuit provides a fraction of the output signal, βVo, which is subtracted from the input source signal, Vs. The resulting signal, Vi, which is also called the error signal, is the input to the amplifier which in turn produces the output signal Vo = AVi. It is the subtraction of the feedback signal from the source signal that results in the negative feedback. The gain Vo/Vs of the inverting amplifier is given by G ≡ Vo A = Vs 1+ β Α (1.7) The feedback gain, or closed-loop gain, depends on the open-loop gain, A, of the basic amplifier and the feedback parameter β. The feedback parameter β depends only on the characteristics of the feedback network. For practical operational amplifiers the openloop gain A is very large. Therefore, in the limit where A → ∞ , Equation (1.7) gives G ≅ 1 β (1.8) and so the gain becomes independent of A and it is only a function of the parameter β. The value and “quality” of β depend on the design of the feedback network as well as on the “quality” of the elements used. Therefore, the designer of the feedback amplifier has control over the operational characteristics of the circuit. Building Negative Feedback Amplifiers. With two resistors we can construct the fundamental feedback network of a negative feedback amplifier. Depending on the terminal at which the signal is applied, the fundamental negative feedback configuration can be in the inverting amplifier arrangement, where the input signal, Vin, is applied to the inverting terminal, Figure 7(a), or in the non-inverting amplifier arrangement, where the input signal, Vin, is applied to the non-inverting terminal, Figure 7(b). R2 R1 R2 Vo R1 Vo Vin Vin (a) Inverting amplifier (b) Non-inverting amplifier Figure 7. Basic feedback amplifier configurations: (a) inverting, (b) non-inverting We will perform the analysis by considering both the effect of finite open loop gain (A is finite) and the ideal op-amp model for which A → ∞ . Inverting Amplifier The basic inverting amplifier configuration is shown on Figure 8. The input signal, Vin , is applied to the inverting terminal and the balance of the circuit consists of resistors R1 and R2. R2 R1 Vo Vin Figure 8. Inverting amplifier circuit Let’s analyze this circuit, i.e determine the output voltage Vo as a function of the input voltage Vin and the circuit parameters, by assuming infinite input resistance at the inverting and non-inverting terminals, zero output resistance and finite open loop gain A. The equivalent circuit of this model is shown on Figure 9. R2 I2 R1 1 I1 In _ Vn + Vi V in Vp Ip Vo AVi + Figure 9. Inverting amplifier circuit model Since our circuit is linear, the voltage at node 1 can be found by considering the principle of superposition. Vn is the sum of voltages Vno and Vnin as shown on the circuits of Figure 10. Vno is the contribution of Vo acting alone and Vnin is the contribution of Vin acting alone. R2 R2 I2 R1 I1 In 1 R1 _ Vn0 In 1 Vp + AVi + Ip Ip Vn o = Vo + Vi Vin AVi _ Vnin I1 Vo + Vi Vp I2 R1 R1 + R 2 Vnin = Vin R2 R1 + R 2 Figure 10. Inverting amplifier equivalent circuits considering the property of linearity. Vn is thus given by Vn = Vno + Vnin = Vo R1 R2 + Vin R1 + R2 R1 + R2 (1.9) R1 corresponds to the output voltage that is fed back into the inverting R1 + R2 input by the feedback resistor network. The term Vo We also know that Vo = A(Vp - Vn) and since Vp = 0 , Vn = - Vo . Equation (1.9) becomes A Vo R1 R2 = Vo + Vin A R1 + R2 R1 + R2 (1.10) By rearranging Equation (1.10) we obtain the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier G ≡ V0 A =− R 1 Vin 1 + (1 + A) R2 1 R2 =− 1 ⎛ R2 ⎞ R1 1 + ⎜1 + ⎟ A⎝ R1 ⎠ (1.11) Recall that for an ideal operational amplifier the open loop gain A is infinite. By taking the limit of Equation (1.11) as A → ∞ , the “ideal” gain of the inverting amplifier becomes V R2 (1.12) G ideal = 0 = − Vin R1 By comparing Equation (1.12) to Equation (1.8) we see that the feedback parameter for R1 . this amplifier circuit is β = R2 Note that the ideal gain depends only on the ratio of resistors R1 and R2. This is a great result. We are now able to design an amplifier with any desirable gain by simply selecting the appropriate ratio of R1 and R2. However, this design flexibility requires a very large value of A, the open loop gain of the op-amp. In practice this is not a very difficult requirement to achieve. Op-amp devices have been designed and manufactured with very low cost and are characterized by very high values of A. The negative sign for the gain indicates that the polarity of Vo is opposite to the polarity of Vin. For example if the input signal Vin is a sinusoid of phase 0 degrees, the output signal will also be a sinusoid with a phase shift of 180 degrees. Figure 11 shows the voltages Vin and Vo for an inverting amplifier with R2/R1=2. Figure 11. Input and output signals of an inverting amplifier with gain of 2. It is instructive at this point to investigate the difference between the ideal model represented by Equation (1.12) and the finite open loop gain model represented by Equation (1.11). Let’s consider an inverting amplifier design with R1=10kΩ and R2=100kΩ. In this case, the ideal voltage gain is -10 as given by Equation (1.12). By assuming that A ranges in values from 1,000 V/V to 10,000,000V/V, Table I shows the results from Equation (1.11) and the resulting deviation in % from the ideal case. Table I. The effect of finite A on op-amp gain A G Deviation % 1000 -9.9810 1.088 10000 -9.9890 0.109 100000 -9.9989 0.011 200000 -9.9998 0.0055 1000000 -9.9999 0.0011 10000000 -9.99999 0.00011 The widely used 741 op-amp has a typical open loop gain of 200,000 V/V. With the 741 used in an inverting amplifier circuit, the error introduced in the analysis by considering the ideal gain is less than 0.0055% (55 ppm), a very good value for many applications. Inverting Amplifier. Ideal op-amp circuit analysis The ideal op-amp rules are: 1. The differential input voltage is zero. Vi = 0 → Vn = Vp 2. No current flowing into the input terminals. This is equivalent to infinite input resistance for the op-amp Ri = ∞ In = Ip = 0 3. Infinite open loop gain. A→∞ 4. Output resistance is zero Ro = 0 By using these rules we can analyze the inverting amplifier op-amp circuit. From Figure 12 we see that Vp is at ground potential (Vp=0V). According to the second rule the voltage Vn must also be at zero Volts. This does not mean that the inverting terminal is grounded. It simply implies that the inverting terminal is at ground potential (zero volts) but it does not provide a current path to ground. This terminal is said to be at “virtual ground”. R2 I2 R1 I1 1 In _ Vn Vo Vi V in Vp Ip + Figure 12. Ideal op-amp inverting amplifier circuit. Since In=Ip=0 (rule 2), KCL at node 1 tells us that current I1 must be equal to current I2. I1 = Vin − V 1 Vin = = I2 R1 R1 The current I2, flowing through R2, is related to the voltage drop across R2 (1.13) I2 = Vn - Vo R2 ⇒ Vo = - I 2 R2 = - Vin R2 R1 (1.14) And so the gain of the ideal inverting amplifier is Gideal ≡ V0 R2 =− Vin R1 (1.15) Note that the gain given by Equation (1.15) is the same as that obtained in the general case as given by Equation (1.11) as A → ∞ . In order to obtain additional intuition on the operation of this circuit let’s consider the two cases for Vin. 1. For Vin >0 the current I1 will be flowing as indicated on Figure 12. Since In = 0, I2 must also flow as indicated. In order for this to happen, the voltage Vo must be at a lower potential than the voltage Vn. But since Vn=0, this can happen only if Vo < 0. 2. For Vin <0 the direction of the currents will be reversed and the argument follows in a similar way, resulting in Vo > 0. Non-Inverting Amplifier Figure 13 shows the basic non-inverting amplifier configuration. The negative feedback is maintained and the input signal is now applied to the non-inverting terminal. R2 R1 I1 I2 1 2 Vo Vin Figure 13. Non-inverting amplifier The equivalent circuit of the Non-Inverting amplifier with a finite open-loop gain is shown on Figure 14. Here we have assumed an infinite input resistance and a zero output resistance for the op-amp. R2 I2 R1 1 Vn I1 In in _ Vp Vo + Vi AVi + Ip V in Figure 14. Equivalent circuit of Non-inverting amplifier with finite open loop gain. Since In = Ip=0, we have I1=I2 and therefore: Vo −Vn Vn −Vo 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 = ⇒ = Vn ⎜ + ⎟ R2 R2 R1 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ Since the voltage Vi = Vp-Vn = Vin-Vn, the output voltage is given by: (1.16) Vo = A(Vin −Vn) (1.17) Combining Equations (1.16) and (1.17), the resulting expression for the closed loop gain, Vo , becomes: G≡ Vin Vo 1+ R2 / R1 G≡ (1.18) = Vin 1 + (1 + R2 / R1) / A The gain is positive and unlike the inverting amplifier, the output voltage Vo is in phase with the input Vin and the gain is always greater than 1. From Equation (1.18)we see that as A → ∞ , the closed loop gain is G = 1+ A→∞ R2 R1 (1.19) The open-loop gain, A, of an op-amp is a parameter with considerable variability. It depends on the characteristics of the various components inside the operational amplifier (transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes) and so it may be a function of environmental conditions (temperature, humidity) and manufacturing processes. As A changes by a dA dG certain fraction, . By , the closed loop gain, G, will also change by an amount G A dG of Equation (1.18) and simplifying we obtain: taking the derivative dA R2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎢ 1+ R1 ⎥ ⎥ dA ⎛ G ⎞ dG dA ⎢ A (1.20) = ⎢ ⎥= ⎜ ⎟ G A ⎢ 1+ R2 ⎥ A ⎝ A ⎠ ⎢1+ R1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ A ⎥⎦ From Equation (1.20) we see that the change in G due to a change in A is modulated by G the factor . A As an example let’s consider the 741 op-amp with a nominal open loop gain of 200 V/mV, which is arranged in a non-inverting amplifier configuration with a closed loop gain of 10. If the open loop gain A changes by 20%, the change in the closed loop gain as given by Equation (14) is dG ⎛ 10 ⎞ = 20 ⎜ % = 0.001% 5 ⎟ G ⎝ 2.0 ×10 ⎠ (1.21) The advantage of having an op-amp with a large value of A is apparent. Of course by “large” value we mean that the open-loop gain is much larger than the closed loop gain ( A >> G ) . We have been able, by using a component that is characterized by large uncertainty in its performance, to construct a devise with very high performance. This however can happen only if the open-loop gain A is very large, which can be easily achieved with standard integrated circuit technology. Non-inverting amplifier: Ideal model Referring to Figure 13, the ideal model implies the voltages at nodes 1 and 2 are equal: Vn = Vin. Also, since no current flows into the terminals of the op-amp, KCL at node 1 gives, ⎫ ⎪ I1 = I 2 ⎪ Vin Vin Vin - Vo ⎪ (1.22) I1 = = ⎬⇒R1 R1 R2 ⎪ Vin - Vo ⎪ I2 = R 2 ⎪⎭ Solving for the gain (Vo/Vin) we have, G ≡ Vo R2 = 1+ Vin R1 ideal (1.23) Note that Equation (1.23) is the same as Equation (1.19) which was obtained in the limit as A → ∞ . Voltage Follower. Buffer. By letting R1 → ∞ and R2 = 0 , Equation (1.23) gives G = Vo = 1. Figure 15 shows Vin the resulting circuit. Vo V in Figure 15. Voltage follower op-amp circuit The voltage gain of this configuration is 1. The output voltage follows the input. So what is the usefulness of this op-amp circuit? Let’s look at the input and output resistance characteristics of the circuit. As we have discussed, the resistance at the input terminals of the op-amp is very large. Indeed, for our ideal model we have taken the value of that resistance to be infinite. Therefore the signal Vin sees a very large resistance which eliminates any loading of the signal source. Similarly, since the output resistance of the op-amp is very small (zero ideally), the loading is also eliminated at the output of the device. In effect this is a resistance transformer. In order to see the importance of this buffer circuit let’s consider the case where the input signal is a source with an output resistance Rs and is connected to a load with resistance RL. In Figure 16(a) the signal source is connected directly to the load RL. Source Source Rs Vin Rs VL Vin VL Vp RL RL Load Load (a) (b) Figure 16. (a) Source and load connected directly. (b) Source and load connected via a voltage follower. From Figure 16(a), the voltage divider formed by Rs and RL gives a value for VL which is a fraction of Vin given by VL = Vin RL RL + Rs (1.24) For example, if RL = 1kΩ and Rs = 10 kΩ, then VL ≈ 0.1 Vin which represents a considerable attenuation (loading) of the signal source. If we now connect the signal source to the load with a buffer amplifier as shown on Figure 16(b). Since the input resistance of the amplifier is very large (no current flows into the terminal), the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, Vp, is equal to Vin. In addition, since the output resistance of the op-amp is zero, the voltage across the load resistor VL = Vo = Vin. The load now sees the input voltage signal but it places no demands on the signal source since it is “buffered” by the operational amplifier circuit. Example: Non-Inverting amplifier design Design an amplifier with a gain of 20dB by using standard 5% tolerance resistors. The input signal is in the range -1V to +1V. The amplifier is to drive a resistive load. For your design you may use an op-amp with the ability to deliver a maximum current of 100mA. Standard 5% resistors are available with values from 10Ω to 10ΜΩ. The decade values can be found from the following table. Table I. Standard 5% resistor values 10 11 12 13 15 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 43 47 51 56 62 68 75 82 91 For example, if we consider the multiplier 11, the possible 5% resistor values corresponding to it are 11Ω, 110Ω, 1.1kΩ, 11kΩ, 110kΩ, 1.1MΩ. For other multipliers, the values may be found by following this example. Solution: The non-inverting amplifier circuit is R2 I2 R1 It IL Vou t RL Vin Figure 17. Amplifier circuit. From the definition of dB we have: 20dB = 20 log Vout V and so out = 10 . Vin Vin The closed loop gain is given by Equation (1.23) and thus for our design 10 = 1 + R2 R1 (1.25) Our task is now to determine the values for R1 and R2 that satisfy the design constraints. We need two resistors whose ratio is 9 (R2/R1 = 9). From the values listed on the 5% table we have a few options. Some of our options are: R2=180Ω and R1=20Ω R2=1.8kΩ and R1=0.2kΩ R2=18kΩ and R1=2kΩ R2=180kΩ and R1=20kΩ R2=1.8MΩ and R1=200kΩ The power constraint will now guide us in determining the actual value of resistors R1 and R2. With an input voltage of +1V the output voltage Vo=10V and thus the current It delivered by the op-amp must be less than 100mA. If all the current is passing through resistor RL then RL is limited to 1kΩ. Besides the path through RL current may also flow to ground through R2 and R1. Since no current flows into the terminals of the op-amp, the fraction of the current that flows through R2 and R1 is ⎛ R1+ R2 ⎞ I 2 = It ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ RL + R1+ R2 ⎠ (1.26) Note that if the resistance value of RL is comparable to that of R1+R2, then a large fraction of the current provided by the op-amp flows through the feedback loop. Therefore in order to tightly satisfy the current constraint of the op-amp we must also consider the amount of current that flows through the feedback loop. The table below shows some of the many design possibilities. RL 0.1kΩ 0.1kΩ 0.1kΩ 110Ω 110Ω 110Ω R1 20Ω 0.2kΩ 2kΩ 2kΩ 20kΩ 200kΩ Table II. Possible designs R2 IL 180Ω 100mA 1.8kΩ 100mA 18kΩ 100mA 18kΩ 90.9mA 180kΩ 90.9mA 1.80ΜΩ 90.9mA I2 50mA 5mA 0.5mA 0.5mA 0.05mA 0.005mA It 150mA 105mA 100.5mA 91.4mA 90.95mA 90.905mA If we consider the 5% tolerance of the resistors we conclude that we are limited to the following resistor values: RL > 100Ω ⎫ ⎪ R1 ≥ 2kΩ ⎬ R2 ≥ 18kΩ ⎭⎪ (1.27) Any set of the values in the enclosed dotted box on Table II may be used in this design. In practice we should however avoid extremely large resistance values in the feedback circuit. Problem: Consider a signal source with a source output resistance Rs connected to the inverting amplifier as shown on Figure P2. Calculate the gain of the amplifier, assuming that the load cannot be ignored. Define the conditions for which the loading can be ignored. R2 R1 Rs RL Vs Source Figure P2 Load Input and Output Resistance of negative feedback circuits. (Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifiers) As we saw in the example of the buffer amplifier, op-amp amplifier circuits may, besides voltage amplification, provide impedance transformation. It is thus important to be able to determine the input and the output resistance seen by a source or a load connected to an op-amp circuit. The input impedance of an op-amp circuit with negative feedback may in general be very different from the open loop input/output resistance of an op-amp. Input resistance Inverting amplifier Rin R2 Rf R1 Vo Vin 1 2 RL Figure 18. Inverting amplifier showing input resistance. The input resistance of the inverting amplifier, or equivalently the resistance seen by the source Vin, is Rin as shown on Figure 18. By designating as Rf, the resistance to the right of point 2, we have Rin = R1 + Rf. Determining Rf and then adding R1 for the total input resistance is an easier process than performing the calculation together. The equivalent resistance Rf may be determined by considering the circuit shown on Figure 19(a). Here we apply a test current It and calculate the resulting voltage Vt. The resistance Rf is then given by Rf=Vt/It. R2 R2 Rf Rf Vt It Vt Vo 2 It RL Ni _ Ii Vi Ri Ro + No Vo AVi RL + (a) (b) Figure 19. (a) Circuit for the calculation of the input resistance. (b) equivalent circuit for the calculation of input resistance Rf. By considering the op-amp model with open loop gain A, input resistance Ri and output resistance Ro, the equivalent circuit of interest is shown on Figure 19(b). By applying KCl at the input and output nodes (Ni and No) we have: KCL at node Ni gives: It = KCL at node No gives: Vt Vt -Vo + Ri R2 Vo Vo - ( A ( -Vt ) ) Vo - Vt + + =0 RL Ro R2 (1.28) (1.29) The ratio Vt/It may be obtained from Equations (1.28) and (1.29) by eliminating Vo. The input resistance of the inverting amplifier is, R ⎤ ⎡ 1+ A + o ⎥ ⎢ 1 1 It 1 RL ⎢ ⎥ (1.30) ≡ = + R R f Vt Ri R2 ⎢1+ o + Ro ⎥ ⎢⎣ RL R2 ⎥⎦ In the ideal case where A → ∞ , the resistance R f → 0 , implying that Vt → 0 and It → 0 : the ideal op-amp rules. For simplicity let’s assume that Ro=0. Then, 1 1 1+ A = + R f Ri R2 For all practical situations R2 << Ri and Equation 16 gives: 1 Rf ≅ R2 1+ A (1.31) (1.32) Which shows that the input resistance Rf is a very strong function of the open loop gain and the input resistance of the op-amp, Ri, has a negligible effect on the resistance Rf. For the 741 op-amp which has A=200 V/mV, Ri = 2 MΩ and Ro = 100Ω an inverting amplifier with R2=10 kΩ, is characterized by Rf = 0.5 mΩ. This is a negligible value for all applications of interest. Therefore, the effective resistance seen by the source is ≈ R1 . Non-inverting amplifier Figure 20 shows the equivalent non-inverting amplifier circuit for the calculation of the input resistance Rin. We apply a test voltage Vt and calculate the resulting current It. The input resistance is then Rin=Vt/It. R2 Vn Ni _ R1 Vi Rin + Vt Ri Ro + No Vo AVi RL It Figure 20. Non-inverting amplifier equivalent circuit for the calculation of the input resistance. We proceed by applying KCL at nodes Ni and No. KCL at node Ni gives: It − KCL at node No gives: Vn Vn −Vo − =0 R1 R2 Vo Vo - ( A (Vi ) ) Vo - Vn + + =0 RL Ro R2 (1.33) (1.34) Since Vi = Vt – Vn = I Ri, Equations (1.33) and (1.34) after some algebraic manipulations give A⎤ Ro Ro ⎡⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎛ Ro Ro ⎞ Ro Ri + + + ⎢⎜ + 1+ ⎟⎜1+ ⎟− 2 + RL R2 ⎣⎝ R1 R2 ⎠⎝ RL R2 ⎠ R2 R2 ⎥⎦ Vt (1.35) = Rin = 1 ⎞⎛ Ro Ro ⎞ Ro It ⎛ 1 + ⎜ + ⎟⎜1+ ⎟− 2 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠⎝ RL R2 ⎠ R2 For a simplification of the above expression let’s neglect Ro which is anyway small compared to other values. Equation (1.35) now becomes ⎛ Ri ⎞ R2 ⎜1+ ⎟ + Ri (1+ A) ) ⎝ R1 ⎠ Rin = R2 1+ R1 (1.36) In the limit A → ∞ , Rin → ∞ . Similarly, in the limit Ri → ∞ , Rin → ∞ . Output Resistance The equivalent circuit for the calculation of the output resistance is shown on Figure 17. Note that this equivalent circuit, which is obtained by suppressing the input sources, is common for both the inverting and the non-inverting amplifiers. We apply a rest voltage V at the output and calculate the resulting current I. The output resistance is Rout=V/I. R2 Vn Ni R1 Vi _ Ri Ro + No AVi Rout Vt It + Figure 21. Model for the calculation of output resistance KCL at node No gives: I+ -AVn -Vt Vn - Vt + =0 Ro R2 By noting that resistors R1 and Ri are in parallel, the voltage Vn at node Ni is (1.37) R1Ri Vn = Vt R1+ Ri R1Ri + R2 R1+ Ri (1.38) By substituting Equation (1.38) into Equation (1.37) the ratio Vt/It becomes ⎛ R2 R2 ⎞ + Ro ⎜1+ ⎟ Vt R1 Ri ⎠ ⎝ = Rout = R2 R2 Ro Ro It + + A+ + 1+ R1 Ri R1 Ri (1.39) In typical circuits R2<>1. Therefore the output resistance is very small. For our typical 741 op-amp, with Ro = 100Ω , Ri = 2MΩ , and A=200V/mV, arranged as an inverting amplifier of gain -10 the output resistance is 5.5mΩ. Table III summarizes the results for the input and output resistance of the ideal inverting and non inverting amplifiers. These general results are sufficient for the design of most amplifiers of interest. The non inverting amplifier is the most useful configuration in terms of its ideal coupling characteristics with the signal source. The signal source sees an infinite input resistance and thus the non-inverting amplifier places no loading demands on the source. Furthermore, the input resistance seen by the source does not change as the gain of the amplifier changes. By contrast, when a source is connected to an inverting amplifier, the source sees the resistor R1 as the input resistance of the amplifier. Table III. Summary of ideal amplifier characteristics. Non inverting amplifier Inverting amplifier R2 R input R2 R1 R output Vout Vin R1 Vout R input Vin ⎛ Vout ⎞ Gain: ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ Vin ⎠ − R2 R1 R output 1+ R2 R1 Rinput R1 ∞ Routput 0 0 Practical op-amp considerations Input Offset and Input Bias currents For an ideal op amp no current flows into its input terminals. However, for real op amps there is a small amount of current that flows into the inverting and non inverting terminals as shown on Figure 22. I B­ IB+ Figure 22. Op-amp symbol with input currents. The electrical characteristics table of op-amp device data sheets give the values for Input offset current (IIO) and the Input Bias current (IIB), where IIO and IIB are defined by I IO = I B + − I B - (1.40) I B + + I B2 (1.41) I IB = In order to quantify the effect of the currents IB+ and IB- lets consider the amplifier configuration of Figure 23 for which all inputs have been set to zero. R2 R1 V n Vp IB­ V out IB+ Figure 23. Amplifier for the evaluation of the effect of the input bias currents. If IB+ and IB- are zero then the output voltage Vout will also be zero. The voltage error due to the bias currents IB+ and IB- is generated by the flow of these currents through resistor R2. For the 741 op amp, the typical room temperature values for IIO and IIB are: IIO=20 nA and IIB=80 nA. For an amplifier with R2=100kΩ, the resulting output voltage is Vout = I B - R2 = (90nA) (100kΩ) = 9 mV . In some application this might be an unacceptable value. This “error” voltage may be reduced by simply selecting a smaller resistor R2. In some cases this might be sufficient assuming that other circuit characteristics like power consumption is not violated. In general however the effect of the bias currents may be reduced by employing the appropriate “compensation technique.” Such an arrangement is shown on Figure 24, where we have used resistor Rp at the non inverting terminal. R2 R1 V n Vp IB­ V out IB+ Rp Figure 24. Amplifier circuit with bias current compensating resistor. Since we have a linear system the effect of the bias currents on Vout can be estimated by using the principle of superposition. We have two cases: 1. IB+ = 0 which gives Vout ( n ) = I B− R2 2. IB- = 0 which gives Vout ( p ) = (1 + RR12 ) Vp = - (1+ RR12 ) I B + R3 And superposition gives ⎛ R2 ⎞ Vout = I B- R2 - ⎜1+ ⎟ I B + R3 R1 ⎠ ⎝ (1.42) Before we proceed with further algebraic manipulation of Equation (1.42) let’s look at the operation of the circuit. The equivalent resistance of the feedback network seen at node Vn is the parallel combination of R1 and R2. By further assuming that IB+ = IB-, the desired system symmetry can be maintained if the resistance seen at node Vp is the same as that seen at node Vn. Therefore if Rp has a value that is equal to the parallel combination of R1 and R2 the differential voltage at the inputs of the op amp balances the effect of the input currents. Now by manipulating Equation (1.42) for the general case when I B + ≠ I B- we obtain ⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ R1R 2 ⎛ R1R 2 ⎞ ⎞I Vout = ⎜1+ − Rp ⎟ I IB − ⎜ + Rp ⎟ IO ⎥ ⎟ ⎢⎜ R1 ⎠ ⎢⎝R1+ R2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝R1+ R2 ⎠ 2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ Bias Term Offset Term (1.43) For I B + = I B- , IIO=0 and the “Offset Term” of Equation (1.43) is zero. The “Bias Term” and thus Vout will then become zero when Rp = When I B + ≠ I B- and Rp = R1// R2 = R1R 2 R1+ R2 (1.44) R1R 2 , the “Bias Term” becomes zero and Vout is R1+ R2 ⎛ R2 ⎞⎛ R1R 2 ⎞I + Rp ⎟ IO = −R2 I IO Vout = − ⎜1+ ⎟⎜ R1 ⎠⎝ R1+ R2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 (1.45) The output error is thus proportional to the input offset current which for most op-maps is about an order of magnitude less than the currents I B+ and I B- . For the 741 op amp I B+ = 90nA and IIO=20nA. Design Practice (principle) Always use a resistor Rp from the non inverting input to ground. Make R1R2 Rp = Since we want the resistance seen by V- and V+ to be the same. R1+R2 R2 R2 R1 R1 Vout Vout V in V in Rp Rp Input Offset Voltage Besides the offset current at the inputs there also exists a nonzero difference voltage Vi at the input terminals even if we apply the same external voltage inputs. For the circuit of Figure 25 the out put voltage is not zero even though the input pins are grounded. The presence of this error voltage is due to transistor matching issues in the internal op-amp circuit. R2 R1 Vout Figure 25. Output offset voltage In the above figure, Vo = Voff·(R1+R2)/R1. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) As we have seen, the usefulness of the op amp is derived from its ability to amplify differential signals. In fact the ideal op amp has an infinite gain for differential voltage signals. It is desired that signals that are common to both inputs “Common Mode (CM) Signals” be rejected by the amplifier. An ideal op amp has the ability to completely reject those CM signals; thus having infinite Common Mode Rejection (CMR) ability. For an amplifier subjected to a differential voltage VD and a common mode voltage VCM, the output voltage is Vo = GDVD + GCM VCM (1.46) Where GD is the differential gain and GCM is the common mode gain of the amplifier. In practice we would like to minimize GCM. The ability of an amplifier to reject the CM signal is expressed by a parameter called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) which is defined as the ratio of the differential gain to common mode gain as follows. CMRR ≡ 20 log10 Gain of Differential Signal G = 20 log10 D Gain of Common Mode Signal GCM (1.47) In the open loop configuration, our standard 741 op amp is characterized by a CMRR of 90dB for signal frequencies less than 100 Hz. At higher frequencies CMRR degrades considerably falling to 40dB at 100 kHz. In general CMRR is not of concern in the inverting amplifier configuration. Can you see why? explain Design Principle Signal frequency is a fundamental parameter that drives circuit design To see the effects of CMRR, drive a unity gain non-inverting 741 op-amp with a 10V step function; the output should be off 10V by a few hundred microvolts. This error is partially due to the finite open-loop gain of the op-amp and partially due to the CMRR. The inverting configuration leads to minimal common mode error since the amplifier’s inputs are both at ground.