Journalism Course Study Guide

Journalism: Course Study Guide Prior to the Beginning of Journalism in the World ● In 2,000 B.C. Phoenian Alphabet- Cuneiform was created. ● 500 B.C. the Greek Telegraph was invented. ● The telegraph was invented to facilitate the communication in between Greeks through a long distance. ● Greeks would build walls of brick with indentations ● For Greeks to be able to receive the message, they would use lit fires on certain indentations to highlight the messages. ● After the message was sent, a watcher at the other side of the wall would resend the message & pass it onto the person who had to receive it. ● 59 B.C : Acta Diruna ● The world’s first daily newspaper was created by Julius Caesar, the Acta Diurna, which mainly had a political focus. ● The Acta Diurna was carved into large rocks and placed into public places for the public to read. ● Words to Know ● Indentations: A cut resembling an edge of an object. ● Watcher: A person who watches a person/object very closely. The Progress of Journalism throughout the Years ● 1440: Johannes Gutemberg ● Invented the first printing press, which led to the era of Mass Communication. ● It became widely popular and was dispersed to 200 different cities in Western Europe. By the 16th century, the Gutenberg Press had released over 20 million copies of papers. ● 1517: Martin Luther ● By using Gutenberg’s printing press, Martin Luther, a german professor of Theology and Monk, made a list of 95 grievances, other known as “theses” against the Catholic church against the church doors in Wittenberg, Germany. ● After creating the 95 theses, Luther a German sent many copies to Archbishops across Europe. ● 1612: Licensing of the Press Act ● An act of the parliament of England. ● “An Act for preventing the frequent abuses in printing seditious treasonable and unlicensed books and pamphlets and for regulating of printing and printing press” - Charles II ● To set up printing presses, the stationaery’s company had to be notified, otherwise it could not be set up. ● The King’s messengers had the right to enter and search for printing presses that were unlicensed, people could face serious fines, even imprisonment. ● 1704: The Boston Newsletter ● The Boston Newsletter was the first published Newspaper in British North America, included news and sold ads for money/revenue. ● It had no cost for the consumer, yet was subsidized by the British Government. ● Subsidized- a sum of money granted by the British Parliament, and was used for special taxation. ● 1700’s: John Peter Zung ● Wrote for the New York Weekly Journal, wrote a lot of unpleasant things towards the government of Britain. ● In 1735, Peter Zung was arrested for libel, and was later proven innocent, since everything that was written by him in the journal was proven factual. ● Peter Zung’s trial was highly shown, and fueled many, which led to the American Revolution. ● After this, we see the litmus test for cases about libel, also the press begins to receive more protection. ● Libel - a written statement in which a plaintiff in certain courts sets forth the cause of action or the relief sought. ● Litmus Test - a test in which a single factor is decisive. ● 1789: Bill of Rights/ First Amendment ● “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, & to petition right of the people peaceably to assemble, & to petition the government for a redress of grievances.” ● 1820’s: Rise of the Penny Paper ● New technology created made printing faster and more efficient. ● The cost was cheaper for bigger corporations. ● The most known was the New York Herald. ● “ Is not to instruct, but to startle and amuse.” James Gordon. ● 1829: Andrew Jackson ● Once Andrew Jackson became president of the United States, he began his own newspaper and printing press. ● The creation of his printing press led to many paper companies to run out of business, since Jackson’s printing press was incharge of all the government issues. The Start of Photojournalism ● The Illustrated London News (ILN) was the first published newspaper with illustrations, in 1842, the photos they used were done by using engravings. ● During the Crimean war of 1853-1856, ILN began early photojournalism by printing pictures of the Crimean War, which were taken by Roger Fenton. ● Roger Fenton was later considered the first war photographer in the world. ● 1861 - 1865: Civil War. ● The Civil War caused a competition in between groups/newspapers to be the first to break the news to people. ● The army tended to censor a lot of information. ● During the Civil War, they would write in a crisp and very unique style & letters were sent through a telegraph or railroad. ● 1866: The New York Herald ● The New York Herald was started by James Gordon Bennett on May 6, 1835, Bennett later passed down the Herald to his son James Gordon Bennett Jr. in 1866. ● The New York Herald prior to 1866 was known as “startling and amusing”, then turned into more of a hard-hitting angle. ● It also changed the style of news. It included more city and foreign coverage; it was the first to add both. Also, including the usage of shore boats to bring news from incoming ships. ● John Thomson: Pioneer of Photojournalism ● In the 1870’s, he joined forces with another journalist, Adolphe Smith. In unison with Smith, they published a monthly magazine called the Street Life in London. ● The Street Life in London was mainly created to document with the usage of photographs and text. It also helped form and establish a social documentary photography style as a new part of journalism. ● Thomson’s idea of the usage of photographs was to implement them with text, not using them to supplement the text in an article. ● The development of the halftone ● In 1880, the Daily Graphic published the first halftone in a news article. ● The reprographic technique was the usage of dots, with different sizes, creating a gradient -like effect. ● Invention of Flashpowder ● It was invented in 1887, which helped many journalists to take photographs of objects/ subjects indoors. ● The invention of Flashpowder led to the publication by Jacob Riis, called “How the Other Half Lives,” The book brought to light the horrifying conditions many lives in the New York City Slums in 1880’s. ● After the publishing of the book, many reforms were created to help those who were living in the New York Slums, and helped them with housing. ● 1890’s: Yellow Journalism ● Who: ● Joseph Pulitizer, of the New York World ● William Randolph, Hurst of the New York Journal ● What: ● The development of story headlines and news headlines with exaggerated titles, to draw in more attention towards the news. ● Where: ● New York CIty ● New York World ● New York Journal ● Why: ● A competition in between Pulitzer and Randolpl to see who would earn more views. ● Outcome: ● Many people from the public came forward and called them out for credibility. ● Later led to the creation of Muckrakers. ● Early 1900’s: Muckraking ● Was created by many American journalists who claimed various institutions & leaders were corrupt. ● Brought awareness to urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, prostitution and child labor. ● Were against corporate monopolies and political machines. ● Would create news stories on topics the public had to know. ● 1921: The Wirephoto ● The WirePhot was invented to help transmit pictures as fast as news could. ● A wirephoto, would send pictures by either telegraph, radio or telephone. ● 1920’s: The Mass Production of the Radio ● The first radio station, KDKA, was created in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. ● The first broadcast from KDKA, was the 1920 presidential race, Warren Harding. ● By the end of the 1920’s, a total of 14 million radio units were sold. ● The Golden Age of Photojournalism (1930 - 1950’s) ● The development of the wirephoto. ● The invention of flashbulbs in 1927 to 1930. ● The creation of the 35mm Leica Camera in 1925. ● 1920’s: News Magazines ● It was a new style of bringing news with more illustrations/images than with text. ● It brought more popularity to the usage of candid photographs taken with smaller cameras. ● Late 1940’s: Widespread Television Ability ● Television productions had already been invented during World War II, yet WWII had haltered the process. ● In the 1950’s, television news stations had created the Nightly News segment. ● November 22, 1963: President Kennedy Assassinated ● As news outlets found out of the death of Kennedy, TV stations/outlets cut from regular programming to keep the US audience informed. ● This was the first time in the United States that regular programming was cut due to breaking news. ● July 20, 1969: Moon Landing ● It was a “feel good moment” during that time period. ● TV stations/outlets did a full clock coverage. ● June 18, 1962 ● A political scandal that occurred right after a break-in at the Watergate office complex. President Richard Nixon’s administration attempted to hide all of its involvement. ● TV reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered information regarding the break-in and the attempt to cover it up. ● Many journalists relied on anonymous resources. ● Later led to the creation of Investigative Journalism. ● Early 1990’s: Rise of the Internet ● Helped communicate over long distances. ● Also, collected large numbers of information into a type of organization. ● 21st Century: Social Media Age: ● Makes it easier to access news anywhere you go. ● Changes how news is reported. ● Development of iReporting. Journalism Ethics ● 4 Major Parts of the Society of Professional Journalists. ● Act Independently. ● Minimize Harm. ● Be accountable & transparent. ● Seek truth & report it. ● Act Independently● The biggest priority for a journalist is to serve the public with the truth. ● Avoid receiving gifts, favors, special treatment, free travel. Avoid any activity that might damage your integrity or credibility. ● Differentiate news from advertising, do not report on an incident if it sounds like advertising. ● Minimize Harm- ● Ethical journalism treats sources, subjects, colleagues and members of the audience as human beings who deserve respect along with everyone else. ● Differentiate the public’s need to know the news against any trigger warnings or discomfort it may cause amongst the public. ● Be kind and compassionate to those whose news coverage may affect. ● Always know that private people have the right to control certain information about themselves, than bigger figures who want power or attention. ● Be Accountable & Transparent● Take accountability for one’s work and explain why one’s decision was taken to the public. ● Have a rapid response to questions regarding accuracy, clarity and fairness. ● Admit when one is in the wrong and has made a mistake, fix them promptly. ● Admit when unethical conduct is being shown. ● Seek Truth and Report It● Be precise and fair with the public. ● Avoid using undercover methods to find information. ● Show unbiased coverage of the news story. ● Never change the facts or context of a news story. ● Never plagiarize, always be courageous. ● Journalistic Photography● Always be accurate, comprehensive when showing certain subjects. ● Try not to be manipulated by staged photo oppurtunities. ● While taking photographs of certain images, do not try to alter the scene to make a picture seem more convincing to the public. ● No “Fauxtography” ● Fauxtography- The practice of creating false images by using software. ● See example below: Cnn reporter Anderson Cooper covers Hurricane Harvey, showing that the water levels are up to his stomach, while his photographer is standing with only his feet covered. This is considered fauxtography. ● Jim Lehner’s 10 Rules of Journalism for Students1. Do nothing I cannot defend. 2. Do not distort, lie, slant or hype. 3. Do not falsify facts or make up quotes. 4. Cover, write and present every story with the care I would want if the story were about me. 5. Assume there is at least one other side or version to every story. 6. Assume the viewer is as smart and as caring and as good a person as I am. 7. Assume the same about people whom I report on. 8. Carefully separate opinion and analysis from straight news stories, and clearly label everything. 9. Do not use anonymous sources or blind quotes, except on rare and monumental occasions. No one should ever be allowed to attack another anonymously. 10. Acknowledge that objectivity may be impossible but fairness never is. Newspaper Funding Models ● Advertising Model● The newspaper companies have a high interest in not angering their advertisers. a ● Example: The Penny Press ● Government Funded Model● In this model, the government tends to subsidize the costs of paper. ● Example: Andrew Jackson ● Non-Profit Model● They are modern day Muckrakers or Investigative Journalists. ● These are reporters who pitch topics on topics people are interested in hearing, then the same reporters are paid with money from donations based on the type of work they do. Eight News Value● Impact● How are people affected? How much did this event impact their lives? ● Examples: An election, Natural Disasters, the Passage of a Legislation or Law. ● Weight- ● The weight of a story includes how seriously and how many, yet there are different factors to it, like if it was unexpected, shock or if it was out of character, etc. ● Examples: Accidental death vs. Injury, National Sporting event vs. local sporting event. ● Timeliness● The importance of timeliness is that the story provides up to date information to keep the new story updated with relevant information. ● Examples: Updates on conditions, charges, investigations, etc. ● Proximity● When speaking of proximity in news, it is to show how one’s feelings either emotional or physical impact the news headline. ● Examples: National Mortgage crisis, health epidemics/ diseases (Covid-19) ● Prominence● The more well known you are, the bigger the target will be, meaning a bigger reach for the news story. ● Examples: Britney Spears shaves her head, Taylor swift goes to prom with a fan. ● Conflict● Conflict is important because people want to know the outcome of a problem. ● The conflict always hooks the audience into wanting more because they want to know how they resolved their feud. ● Examples: Presidential Debates, the World Series, Steve Jobs Biography. ● Novelty● Novelty means that each story has a plot twist, something one wouldn’t see on an everyday basis. ● Examples: Dolphin caught at the shore, etc. ● Usefulness● How important the information being given to the audience helps them navigate their everyday lives. ● Examples: Weather reports, health information, stories about good deeds, etc. AP Style ● A style in writing to help reference people, places, dates and things. ● All news corporations use AP styles. ● The Basic Grammar Rules● When referencing to people, always use the terms “who”, “whom” NEVER use “that.” ● The only use for “that” that is acceptable is when speaking on inanimate objects. ● Who vs. Whom● If the word is replaceable with He or She, then use who. ● If the word is replaceable with Him or Her, use whom. ● Nouns & Pronouns: Capitalization● The start of every sentence will always begin with a capital letter. ● I is ALWAYS capitalized. ● The word “room” will always be capitalized if placed before a number. ● Punctuation Rules● Every sentence will end with a period. ● The use of question marks only happens when questioning a statement, it is also placed after the statement in question. ● Exclamation points are used in a sentence that has strong emotions or projection of feelings. (Hardly used in news stories, headlines, leads.) ● All types of punctuation are placed inside of quotes. ● Oxford Commas● An oxford comma is the final comma that is added at the end of a sentence/series. ● Parenthesis● Parentheses are used only when clarification towards a subject is necessary. ● Italizing● It is important to italicize books, albums, movies, operas, works of art but not the Bible or anything related to it. ● Apostrophes● The use of apostrophes is to show possession. ● Also, used to remove certain letters, figures or words. ● Example: Class of ‘21. ● Referencing People● The first time referencing a person in a news article, state the subject’s full name (and position/title, if they have one.) ● Example: Madison Aguilar went to Baskim Robbins to purchase ice cream for her and her mom. ● After referencing the subject a first time, the following times their name is referenced, only use the last name. ● Example: “She wanted cookies & cream ice cream but I wanted mint,” Aguilar said. ● ALWAYS put the person's last name when using the word “said.” ● Only time where it is acceptable to put the name of a person first is when their job title/position is long. ● “I can’t believe I got the chance to interview Simone Biles,” said Jamie Fayette, President of the National Association for Advanced Gymnasts in Texas. ● Referencing Dates● These following months have to be abbreviated- Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept, Oct. Nov., Dec., ● For example: “Someone accidentally lifted the intruder alarm at the store on Oct. 23 2018.” ● EXCEPTION: One should write the full name of a month, if a date is not included ● For example: “In March 2020, a lot of Americans changed their lifestyle due to the ongoing pandemic,” ● Technology● The Internet is never capitalized, unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. ● The word “email” is no longer hyphenated (not e-mail or E-mail). ● Addresses● If you have the full address, abbreviate the street name. ● If you were only giving the street name, spell it out all the way. ● Tiles that are always abbreviated● Gov. (governor) ● Lt. Gov. (Lieutenant Governor) ● Rep. (Representative) ● The Rev. (Reverend) ● Sen. (Senator) ● Abbreviating colleges is acceptable but do NOT use periods. ● Organizations/Schools have to be spelt out the first time, after the first reference you are allowed to abbreviate. ● Non-Abbreviations● It is always Christmas, NEVER Xmas. ● ALWAYS spell out the week days. ● ALWAYS spell the full names of other countries. ● ALWAYS spell out percent, not % ● Numbers● ALWAYS spell out all number values that are under 10. ● EXCEPTION: Dimensions are always written the numerical way. ● Extra● News articles are NEVER written from a first person point of view. ● NEVER state one's opinion in a news article, it makes it seem biased. Types of Writing ● Feature Writing● Feature writing helps tell the reader a story. It has a beginning, middle and end. The beginning is also known as the “lead.” ● It is a more vivid story so the reader can more promptly create images in their head about the story being told. ● Transition/Quote Formula● This is the most common formula used when writing a feature article. ● Lead- A sentence that helps hook the reader into wanting to read one's story. ● Nut Graph- A slight summary of what one's feature article will be about; why is this story so important that the reader has to read it? ● Direct Quote- A quote from a person involved in the story (rememberyou can NOT create your own quotes, to satisfy the story or make it more readable to the audience.) It ties in with the Nut Graph and also helps show emotions in the story. ● Transition- Another important fact from the story is added here with the usage of transition words to make the story flow better. ● Direct Quote- do NOT use the same quote as used in the first time, connect this direct quote to the fact giving in the transition paragraph. ● Transition- Use another important fact of the story with transition words to make the story a bit more shiny. ● Direct Quote- Connect this direct quote to the transition paragraph above. ● And so on… until the story is complete. ● Leads● The lead is an important part of the story, it is the first sentence the reader reads, it has to hook them into wanting to read more. ● It can be in very different tones: serious, sarcastic, ironic, flippant or melancholy. Amongst many other tones. ● The lead should begin with certain specific details, then expand on other reasons of the story. ● Sometimes a lead can be longer than a sentence. ● Needs to be specific to your story, nothing out of the topic. ● Should be in third person. ● Has to fit the mood or tone of the story that is being written. ● Types of Leads● Narrative - Helps tell a story. ● Descriptive- Helps describe a person, subject or scene. ● Direct Quote- Has to be used in narrative, and can not repeat within the story. ● Startling Statement- Can be the use of statistics or weird crazy facts that can get the reader surprised and hooked into reading more. ● Contrast and Compare- Then and Now. ● Twist- Start of the sentence with a certain mood/tone then turn it to the actual mood/tone of the story. ● Writing Devices for Leads● Repetition. ● Short sentences. Fragments. ● The use of dialogue. ● Although one is breaking a rule, starting with “And” can actually make a good lead. ● Mistakes made when writing a lead● AVOID first and second person point of views. ● Stating the obvious. ● Starting off with “Imagine this…” ● The Nut Graph● The Nut Graph is basically a summary of what is going on in the story> Basically the 5 W’s and H that weren’t included in the lead. ● It is like a thesis to the article. ● How to end a feature writing? ● There are two common options in closing an article: one either chooses a powerful quote or ties it back to the lead in the first paragraph. ● Do’s & Don'ts● Yes your lead can be longer than a sentence or a paragraph. ● Do put quotes to tie in with the lead. ● Do use the first name if the story is about a student, but only if it is the second reference. ● Don’t use a news lead, they are very different. ● Don’t Write in a passive tone. ● Don’t stack quotes. ● Don’t avoid using quotes, they are very essential to a story. ● News Writing● Figure out the lead- ● In news writing, the lead includes the 5 W’s- Who, What, When, Where and Why. ● Identify the 5W’s● Choose how to structure your narrative● There are four different types of structures that are commonly used when writing a news article: ● Inverted Pyramid. ● Narrative. ● Hourglass Structure. ● Chronological Order. ● Invented Pyramid● In an inverted pyramid the author locates the most important information on top, or in the first two paragraphs. ● The reader could stop reading after all the basic and important information is given. ● First, you put all the important information from the story, to have better communication for the story to be more successful. ● Secondly, you add the information that helps the story and adds important details to it but is not crucial. ● Lastly, you add certain sentences that can add dazzle to the story but are not necessary at all. ● Narrative Writing● This style of writing is more storytelling than the others. ● In a narrative writing you are expressing and writing the story in hopes that it will connect with a person's emotions/heart. ● Rarely narrative writing will be used with a hard-hitting story, it is mostly used with emotional stories that can captivate a reader's heart. ● There is a beginning, middle and end. ● The language of a narrative story doesn’t have to be as formal as in news writing. ● Helps create an image to the reader by helping describe the main character. ● Hourglass Structure- ● The hourglass structure is rarely used, it is more commonly used for feature stories on a sunday paper. ● It follows the narrative and inverted pyramid style, then leads with a chronological format. ● It has a lead, then puts all the important information in the top two paragraphs for the reader, then you repeat the process. ● At the top- main news. ● Transitional>< Phrase ● Then, the story begins with the beginning, middle and end. ● Chronological Order● Reporting the events in the order in which they occurred, the use of transitions and direct quotes is very important from the people who were there at the time of the event. ● Quotes● When developing a news story, it is vital to interview those involved in the topic you are writing about. ● Transitional Phrase● A transitional phrase helps the story move along in the direction you want it to. ● They are like bridges that help divide your paper into parts, they help the reader transition and read into the story. ● Wrapping up a News Story● Help the reader into a new direction of the story. ● End with a powerful quote. ● Suggest an action to a problem. ● Present a solution to a problem. ● Circle back to the beginning of the story and point out the main focus of the story. ● Summarize the whole story, add details that can make the story pop a bit. ● Answer all “and’s” or “So What” questions. Writing Reviews● Persuasive writers remember their Oreo’s ● Oreo format● O- opinion ● R- reason ● E- Example ● O- opinion restated Investigative Journalism● In investigative journalism, journalists try to uncover many details from a person, object or event. ● In this branch of journalism it is harder to receive facts and information on a topic, since the sources one is working with do not want to give away personal information or want to be investigated. ● After revealing sources or information on a certain topic, it can ruin a person's public life. Therefore, it is a job that you have to be extremely careful with on the sources/facts you are working with.