Maxwell’s Integral Laws in Free Space

1 MAXWELL’S INTEGRAL LAWS IN FREE SPACE 1.0 INTRODUCTION Practical, intellectual, and cultural reasons motivate the study of electricity and magnetism. The operation of electrical systems designed to perform certain engi­ neering tasks depends, at least in part, on electrical, electromechanical, or electro­ chemical phenomena. The electrical aspects of these applications are described by Maxwell’s equations. As a description of the temporal evolution of electromagnetic fields in three­dimensional space, these same equations form a concise summary of a wider range of phenomena than can be found in any other discipline. Maxwell’s equations are an intellectual achievement that should be familiar to every student of physical phenomena. As part of the theory of fields that includes continuum me­ chanics, quantum mechanics, heat and mass transfer, and many other disciplines, our subject develops the mathematical language and methods that are the basis for these other areas. For those who have an interest in electromechanical energy conversion, trans­ mission systems at power or radio frequencies, waveguides at microwave or optical frequencies, antennas, or plasmas, there is little need to argue the necessity for becoming expert in dealing with electromagnetic fields. There are others who may require encouragement. For example, circuit designers may be satisfied with circuit theory, the laws of which are stated in terms of voltages and currents and in terms of the relations imposed upon the voltages and currents by the circuit elements. However, these laws break down at high frequencies, and this cannot be understood without electromagnetic field theory. The limitations of circuit models come into play as the frequency is raised so high that the propagation time of electromagnetic fields becomes comparable to a period, with the result that “inductors” behave as “capacitors” and vice versa. Other limitations are associated with loss phenom­ ena. As the frequency is raised, resistors and transistors are limited by “capacitive” effects, and transducers and transformers by “eddy” currents. 1 2 Anyone concerned with developing circuit models for physical systems requires a field theory background to justify approximations and to derive the values of the circuit parameters. Thus, the bioengineer concerned with electrocardiography or neurophysiology must resort to field theory in establishing a meaningful connection between the physical reality and models, when these are stated in terms of circuit elements. Similarly, even if a control theorist makes use of a lumped parameter model, its justification hinges on a continuum theory, whether electromagnetic, mechanical, or thermal in nature. Computer hardware may seem to be another application not dependent on electromagnetic field theory. The software interface through which the computer is often seen makes it seem unrelated to our subject. Although the hardware is generally represented in terms of circuits, the practical realization of a computer designed to carry out logic operations is limited by electromagnetic laws. For exam­ ple, the signal originating at one point in a computer cannot reach another point within a time less than that required for a signal, propagating at the speed of light, to traverse the interconnecting wires. That circuit models have remained useful as computation speeds have increased is a tribute to the solid state technology that has made it possible to decrease the size of the fundamental circuit elements. Sooner or later, the fundamental limitations imposed by the electromagnetic fields define the computation speed frontier of computer technology, whether it be caused by electromagnetic wave delays or electrical power dissipation. Overview of Subject. As illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 1.0.1, we start with Maxwell’s equations written in integral form. This chapter begins with a definition of the fields in terms of forces and sources followed by a review of each of the integral laws. Interwoven with the development are examples intended to develop the methods for surface and volume integrals used in stating the laws. The examples are also intended to attach at least one physical situation to each of the laws. Our objective in the chapters that follow is to make these laws useful, not only in modeling engineering systems but in dealing with practical systems in a qualitative fashion (as an inventor often does). The integral laws are directly useful for (a) dealing with fields in this qualitative way, (b) finding fields in simple configurations having a great deal of symmetry, and (c) relating fields to their sources. Chapter 2 develops a differential description from the integral laws. By follow­ ing the examples and some of the homework associated with each of the sections, a minimum background in the mathematical theorems and operators is developed. The differential operators and associated integral theorems are brought in as needed. Thus, the divergence and curl operators, along with the theorems of Gauss and Stokes, are developed in Chap. 2, while the gradient operator and integral theorem are naturally derived in Chap. 4. Static fields are often the first topic in developing an understanding of phe­ nomena predicted by Maxwell’s equations. Fields are not measurable, let alone of practical interest, unless they are dynamic. As developed here, fields are never truly static. The subject of quasistatics, begun in Chap. 3, is central to the approach we will use to understand the implications of Maxwell’s equations. A mature un­ derstanding of these equations is achieved when one has learned how to neglect complications that are inconsequential. The electroquasistatic (EQS) and magne­ 3 4 Fig. 1.0.1 Outline of Subject. The three columns, respectively for electro­ quasistatics, magnetoquasistatics and electrodynamics, show parallels in de­ velopment. toquasistatic (MQS) approximations are justified if time rates of change are slow enough (frequencies are low enough) so that time delays due to the propagation of electromagnetic waves are unimportant. The examples considered in Chap. 3 give some notion as to which of the two approximations is appropriate in a given situa­ tion. A full appreciation for the quasistatic approximations will come into view as the EQS and MQS developments are drawn together in Chaps. 11 through 15. Although capacitors and inductors are examples in the electroquasistatic and magnetoquasistatic categories, respectively, it is not true that quasistatic sys­ tems can be generally modeled by frequency­independent circuit elements. High­ frequency models for transistors are correctly based on the EQS approximation. Electromagnetic wave delays in the transistors are not consequential. Nevertheless, dynamic effects are important and the EQS approximation can contain the finite time for charge migration. Models for eddy current shields or heaters are correctly based on the MQS approximation. Again, the delay time of an electromagnetic wave is unimportant while the all­important diffusion time of the magnetic field 5 is represented by the MQS laws. Space charge waves on an electron beam or spin waves in a saturated magnetizable material are often described by EQS and MQS laws, respectively, even though frequencies of interest are in the GHz range. The parallel developments of EQS (Chaps. 4–7) and MQS systems (Chaps. 8– 10) is emphasized by the first page of Fig. 1.0.1. For each topic in the EQS column to the left there is an analogous one at the same level in the MQS column. Although the field concepts and mathematical techniques used in dealing with EQS and MQS systems are often similar, a comparative study reveals as many contrasts as direct analogies. There is a two­way interplay between the electric and magnetic studies. Not only are results from the EQS developments applied in the description of MQS systems, but the examination of MQS situations leads to a greater appreciation for the EQS laws. At the tops of the EQS and the MQS columns, the first page of Fig. 1.0.1, general (contrasting) attributes of the electric and magnetic fields are identified. The developments then lead from situations where the field sources are prescribed to where they are to be determined. Thus, EQS electric fields are first found from prescribed distributions of charge, while MQS magnetic fields are determined given the currents. The development of the EQS field solution is a direct investment in the subsequent MQS derivation. It is then recognized that in many practical situations, these sources are induced in materials and must therefore be found as part of the field solution. In the first of these situations, induced sources are on the boundaries of conductors having a sufficiently high electrical conductivity to be modeled as “perfectly” conducting. For the EQS systems, these sources are surface charges, while for the MQS, they are surface currents. In either case, fields must satisfy boundary conditions, and the EQS study provides not only mathematical techniques but even partial differential equations directly applicable to MQS problems. Polarization and magnetization account for field sources that can be pre­ scribed (electrets and permanent magnets) or induced by the fields themselves. In the Chu formulation used here, there is a complete analogy between the way in which polarization and magnetization are represented. Thus, there is a direct transfer of ideas from Chap. 6 to Chap. 9. The parallel quasistatic studies culminate in Chaps. 7 and 10 in an examina­ tion of loss phenomena. Here we learn that very different answers must be given to the question “When is a conductor perfect?” for EQS on one hand, and MQS on the other. In Chap. 11, many of the concepts developed previously are put to work through the consideration of the flow of power, storage of energy, and production of electromagnetic forces. From this chapter on, Maxwell’s equations are used with­ out approximation. Thus, the EQS and MQS approximations are seen to represent systems in which either the electric or the magnetic energy storage dominates re­ spectively. In Chaps. 12 through 14, the focus is on electromagnetic waves. The develop­ ment is a natural extension of the approach taken in the EQS and MQS columns. This is emphasized by the outline represented on the right page of Fig. 1.0.1. The topics of Chaps. 12 and 13 parallel those of the EQS and MQS columns on the previous page. Potentials used to represent electrodynamic fields are a natural gen­ eralization of those used for the EQS and MQS systems. As for the quasistatic fields, the fields of given sources are considered first. An immediate practical application is therefore the description of radiation fields of antennas. 6 The boundary value point of view, introduced for EQS systems in Chap. 5 and for MQS systems in Chap. 8, is the basic theme of Chap. 13. Practical examples include simple transmission lines and waveguides. An understanding of transmission line dynamics, the subject of Chap. 14, is necessary in dealing with the “conventional” ideal lines that model most high­frequency systems. They are also shown to provide useful models for representing quasistatic dynamical processes. To make practical use of Maxwell’s equations, it is necessary to master the art of making approximations. Based on the electromagnetic properties and dimen­ sions of a system and on the time scales (frequencies) of importance, how can a physical system be broken into electromagnetic subsystems, each described by its dominant physical processes? It is with this goal in mind that the EQS and MQS approximations are introduced in Chap. 3, and to this end that Chap. 15 gives an overview of electromagnetic fields. 1.1 THE LORENTZ LAW IN FREE SPACE There are two points of view for formulating a theory of electrodynamics. The older one views the forces of attraction or repulsion between two charges or currents as the result of action at a distance. Coulomb’s law of electrostatics and the corresponding law of magnetostatics were first stated in this fashion. Faraday[1] introduced a new approach in which he envisioned the space between interacting charges to be filled with fields, by which the space is activated in a certain sense; forces between two interacting charges are then transferred, in Faraday’s view, from volume element to volume element in the space between the interacting bodies until finally they are transferred from one charge to the other. The advantage of Faraday’s approach was that it brought to bear on the electromagnetic problem the then well­developed theory of continuum mechanics. The culmination of this point of view was Maxwell’s formulation[2] of the equations named after him. From Faraday’s point of view, electric and magnetic fields are defined at a point r even when there is no charge present there. The fields are defined in terms of the force that would be exerted on a test charge q if it were introduced at r moving at a velocity v at the time of interest. It is found experimentally that such a force would be composed of two parts, one that is independent of v, and the other proportional to v and orthogonal to it. The force is summarized in terms of the electric field intensity E and magnetic flux density µo H by the Lorentz force law. (For a review of vector operations, see Appendix 1.) f = q(E + v × µo H) (1) The superposition of electric and magnetic force contributions to (1) is illus­ trated in Fig. 1.1.1. Included in the figure is a reminder of the right­hand rule used to determine the direction of the cross­product of v and µo H. In general, E and H are not uniform, but rather are functions of position r and time t: E = E(r, t) and µo H = µo H(r, t). In addition to the units of length, mass, and time associated with mechanics, a unit of charge is required by the theory of electrodynamics. This unit is the 7 Fig. 1.1.1 Lorentz force f in geometric relation to the electric and magnetic field intensities, E and H, and the charge velocity v: (a) electric force, (b) magnetic force, and (c) total force. coulomb. The Lorentz force law, (1), then serves to define the units of E and of µo H. 2 newton kilogram meter/(second) units of E = = (2) coulomb coulomb units of µo H = newton kilogram = coulomb meter/second coulomb second (3) We can only establish the units of the magnetic flux density µo H from the force law and cannot argue until Sec. 1.4 that the derived units of H are ampere/meter and hence of µo are henry/meter. In much of electrodynamics, the predominant concern is not with mechanics but with electric and magnetic fields in their own right. Therefore, it is inconvenient to use the unit of mass when checking the units of quantities. It proves useful to introduce a new name for the unit of electric field intensity– the unit of volt/meter. In the summary of variables given in Table 1.8.2 at the end of the chapter, the fundamental units are SI, while the derived units exploit the fact that the unit of mass, kilogram = volt­coulomb­second2 /meter2 and also that a coulomb/second = ampere. Dimensional checking of equations is guaranteed if the basic units are used, but may often be accomplished using the derived units. The latter communicate the physical nature of the variable and the natural symmetry of the electric and magnetic variables. Example 1.1.1. Electron Motion in Vacuum in a Uniform Static Electric Field In vacuum, the motion of a charged particle is limited only by its own inertia. In the uniform electric field illustrated in Fig. 1.1.2, there is no magnetic field, and an electron starts out from the plane x = 0 with an initial velocity vi . The “imposed” electric field is E = ix Ex , where ix is the unit vector in the x direction and Ex is a given constant. The trajectory is to be determined here and used to exemplify the charge and current density in Example 1.2.1. 8 Fig. 1.1.2 An electron, subject to the uniform electric field intensity Ex , has the position ξx , shown as a function of time for positive and negative fields. With m defined as the electron mass, Newton’s law combines with the Lorentz law to describe the motion. m d2 ξx = f = −eEx dt2 (4) The electron position ξx is shown in Fig. 1.1.2. The charge of the electron is custom­ arily denoted by e (e = 1.6 × 10−19 coulomb) where e is positive, thus necessitating an explicit minus sign in (4). By integrating twice, we get ξx = − 1 e Ex t2 + c1 t + c2 2m (5) where c1 and c2 are integration constants. If we assume that the electron is at ξx = 0 and has velocity vi when t = ti , it follows that these constants are c1 = v i + e Ex t i ; m c2 = −vi ti − 1 e Ex t2i 2m (6) Thus, the electron position and velocity are given as a function of time by ξx = − 1 e Ex (t − ti )2 + vi (t − ti ) 2m dξx e = − Ex (t − ti ) + vi dt m (7) (8) With x defined as upward and Ex > 0, the motion of an electron in an electric field is analogous to the free fall of a mass in a gravitational field, as illustrated by Fig. 1.1.2. With Ex < 0, and the initial velocity also positive, the velocity is a monotonically increasing function of time, as also illustrated by Fig. 1.1.2. Example 1.1.2. Electron Motion in Vacuum in a Uniform Static Magnetic Field The magnetic contribution to the Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the particle velocity and the imposed field. We illustrate this fact by considering the trajectory 9 Fig. 1.1.3 (a) In a uniform magnetic flux density µo Ho and with no initial velocity in the y direction, an electron has a circular orbit. (b) With an initial velocity in the y direction, the orbit is helical. resulting from an initial velocity viz along the z axis. With a uniform constant magnetic flux density µo H existing along the y axis, the force is f = −e(v × µo H) (9) The cross­product of two vectors is perpendicular to the two vector factors, so the acceleration of the electron, caused by the magnetic field, is always perpendicular to its velocity. Therefore, a magnetic field alone cannot change the magnitude of the electron velocity (and hence the kinetic energy of the electron) but can change only the direction of the velocity. Because the magnetic field is uniform, because the velocity and the rate of change of the velocity lie in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field, and, finally, because the magnitude of v does not change, we find that the acceleration has a constant magnitude and is orthogonal to both the velocity and the magnetic field. The electron moves in a circle so that the centrifugal force counterbalances the magnetic force. Figure 1.1.3a illustrates the motion. The radius of the circle is determined by equating the centrifugal force and radial Lorentz force eµo |v |Ho = which leads to r= mv 2 r m |v| e µo Ho (10) (11) The foregoing problem can be modified to account for any arbitrary initial angle between the velocity and the magnetic field. The vector equation of motion (really three equations in the three unknowns ξx , ξy , ξz ) m � dξ̄ � d2 ξ̄ = −e × µo H dt2 dt (12) is linear in ξ̄, and so solutions can be superimposed to satisfy initial conditions that include not only a velocity viz but one in the y direction as well, viy . Motion in the same direction as the magnetic field does not give rise to an additional force. Thus, 10 the y component of (12) is zero on the right. An integration then shows that the y directed velocity remains constant at its initial value, viy . This uniform motion can be added to that already obtained to see that the electron follows a helical path, as shown in Fig. 1.1.3b. It is interesting to note that the angular frequency of rotation of the electron around the field is independent of the speed of the electron and depends only upon the magnetic flux density, µo Ho . Indeed, from (11) we find v e ≡ ω c = µo H o r m (13) For a flux density of 1 volt­second/meter (or 1 tesla), the cyclotron frequency is fc = ωc /2π = 28 GHz. (For an electron, e = 1.602×10−19 coulomb and m = 9.106×10−31 kg.) With an initial velocity in the z direction of 3 × 107 m/s, the radius of gyration in the flux density µo H = 1 tesla is r = viz /ωc = 1.7 × 10−4 m. 1.2 CHARGE AND CURRENT DENSITIES In Maxwell’s day, it was not known that charges are not infinitely divisible but occur in elementary units of 1.6 × 10−19 coulomb, the charge of an electron. Hence, Maxwell’s macroscopic theory deals with continuous charge distributions. This is an adequate description for fields of engineering interest that are produced by ag­ gregates of large numbers of elementary charges. These aggregates produce charge distributions that are described conveniently in terms of a charge per unit volume, a charge density ρ. Pick an incremental volume and determine the net charge within. Then ρ(r, t) ≡ net charge in ΔV ΔV (1) is the charge density at the position r when the time is t. The units of ρ are coulomb/meter3 . The volume ΔV is chosen small as compared to the dimensions of the system of interest, but large enough so as to contain many elementary charges. The charge density ρ is treated as a continuous function of position. The “graini­ ness” of the charge distribution is ignored in such a “macroscopic” treatment. Fundamentally, current is charge transport and connotes the time rate of change of charge. Current density is a directed current per unit area and hence measured in (coulomb/second)/meter2 . A charge density ρ moving at a velocity v implies a rate of charge transport per unit area, a current density J, given by J = ρv (2) One way to envision this relation is shown in Fig. 1.2.1, where a charge density ρ having velocity v traverses a differential area δa. The area element has a unit normal n, so that a differential area vector can be defined as δa = nδa. The charge that passes during a differential time δt is equal to the total charge contained in the volume v · δadt. Therefore, d(δq) = ρv · δadt (3) 11 Fig. 1.2.1 Current density J passing through surface having a normal n. Fig. 1.2.2 Charge injected at the lower boundary is accelerated up­ ward by an electric field. Vertical distributions of (a) field intensity, (b) velocity and (c) charge density. Divided by dt, we expect (3) to take the form J · δa, so it follows that the current density is related to the charge density by (2). The velocity v is the velocity of the charge. Just how the charge is set into motion depends on the physical situation. The charge might be suspended in or on an insulating material which is itself in motion. In that case, the velocity would also be that of the material. More likely, it is the result of applying an electric field to a conductor, as considered in Chap. 7. For charged particles moving in vacuum, it might result from motions represented by the laws of Newton and Lorentz, as illustrated in the examples in Sec.1.1. This is the case in the following example. Example 1.2.1. Charge and Current Densities in a Vacuum Diode Consider the charge and current densities for electrons being emitted with initial velocity v from a “cathode” in the plane x = 0, as shown in Fig. 1.2.2a.1 Electrons are continuously injected. As in Example 1.1.1, where the motions of the individual electrons are considered, the electric field is assumed to be uniform. In the next section, it is recognized that charge is the source of the electric field. Here it is assumed that the charge used to impose the uniform field is much greater than the “space charge” associated with the electrons. This is justified in the limit of a low electron current. Any one of the electrons has a position and velocity given by (1.1.7) and (1.1.8). If each is injected with the same initial velocity, the charge and current densities in any given plane x = constant would be expected to be independent of time. Moreover, the current passing any x­plane should be the same as that passing any other such plane. That is, in the steady state, the current density is independent 1 Here we picture the field variables E , v , and ρ as though they were positive. For electrons, x x ρ < 0, and to make vx > 0, we must have Ex < 0. 12 of not only time but x as well. Thus, it is possible to write ρ(x)vx (x) = Jo (4) where Jo is a given current density. The following steps illustrate how this condition of current continuity makes it possible to shift from a description of the particle motions described with time as the independent variable to one in which coordinates (x, y, z) (or for short r) are the independent coordinates. The relation between time and position for the electron described by (1.1.7) takes the form of a quadratic in (t − ti ) 1 e Ex (t − ti )2 − vi (t − ti ) + ξx = 0 2m (5) This can be solved to give the elapsed time for a particle to reach the position ξx . Note that of the two possible solutions to (5), the one selected satisfies the condition that when t = ti , ξx = 0. t − ti = vi − � e vi2 − 2 m E x ξx e E x m (6) With the benefit of this expression, the velocity given by (1.1.8) is written as dξx = dt � vi2 − 2e E x ξx m (7) Now we make a shift in viewpoint. On the left in (7) is the velocity vx of the particle that is at the location ξx = x. Substitution of variables then gives � vx = vi2 − 2 e Ex x m (8) so that x becomes the independent variable used to express the dependent variable vx . It follows from this expression and (4) that the charge density ρ= Jo Jo = � 2 vx vi − 2e E x m x (9) is also expressed as a function of x. In the plots shown in Fig. 1.2.2, it is assumed that Ex < 0, so that the electrons have velocities that increase monotonically with x. As should be expected, the charge density decreases with x because as they speed up, the electrons thin out to keep the current density constant. 1.3 GAUSS’ INTEGRAL LAW OF ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY The Lorentz force law of Sec. 1.1 expresses the effect of electromagnetic fields on a moving charge. The remaining sections in this chapter are concerned with the reaction of the moving charges upon the electromagnetic fields. The first of 13 Fig. 1.3.1 General surface S enclosing volume V . Maxwell’s equations to be considered, Gauss’ law, describes how the electric field intensity is related to its source. The net charge within an arbitrary volume V that is enclosed by a surface S is related to the net electric flux through that surface by � � �o E · da = S ρdv V (1) With the surface normal defined as directed outward, the volume is shown in Fig. 1.3.1. Here the permittivity of free space, �o = 8.854 × 10−12 farad/meter, is an empirical constant needed to express Maxwell’s equations in SI units. On the right in (1) is the net charge enclosed by the surface S. On the left is the summation over this same closed surface of the differential contributions of flux �o E · da. The quantity �o E is called the electric displacement flux density and, [from (1)], has the units of coulomb/meter2 . Out of any region containing net charge, there must be a net displacement flux. The following example illustrates the mechanics of carrying out the volume and surface integrations. Example 1.3.1. Electric Field Due to Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution Given the charge and current distributions, the integral laws fully determine the electric and magnetic fields. However, they are not directly useful unless there is a great deal of symmetry. An example is the distribution of charge density � ρ(r) = r ρo R ; 0; rR (2) in the spherical coordinate system of Fig. 1.3.2. Here ρo and R are given constants. An argument based on the spherical symmetry shows that the only possible com­ ponent of E is radial. E = ir Er (r) (3) Indeed, suppose that in addition to this r component the field possesses a φ com­ ponent. At a given point, the components of E then appear as shown in Fig. 1.3.2b. Rotation of the system about the axis shown results in a component of E in some new direction perpendicular to r. However, the rotation leaves the source of that field, the charge distribution, unaltered. It follows that Eφ must be zero. A similar argument shows that Eθ also is zero. 14 Fig. 1.3.2 (a) Spherically symmetric charge distribution, showing ra­ dial dependence of charge density and associated radial electric field intensity. (b) Axis of rotation for demonstration that the components of E transverse to the radial coordinate are zero. The incremental volume element is dv = (dr)(rdθ)(r sin θdφ) (4) and it follows that for a spherical volume having arbitrary radius r, � � r � π � 2π � � ρdv = V � � � 0 0 0 R π 2π 0 0 � � r� � ρo rR (r� sin θdφ)(r� dθ)dr� = � 0 ρo R (r� sin θdφ)(r� dθ)dr� = πρo 4 r ; R πρo R3 ; rR (2) 22 Fig. 1.4.2 Axially symmetric current distribution and associated ra­ dial distribution of azimuthal magnetic field intensity. Contour C is used to determine azimuthal H, while C � is used to show that the z­directed field must be uniform. where Jo and R are given constants. The associated magnetic field intensity has only an azimuthal component. H = Hφ iφ (3) To see that there can be no r component of this field, observe that rotation of the source around the radial axis, as shown in Fig. 1.4.2, reverses the source (the current is then in the −z direction) and hence must reverse the field. But an r component of the field does not reverse under such a rotation and hence must be zero. The Hφ and Hz components are not ruled out by this argument. However, if they exist, they must not depend upon the φ and z coordinates, because rotation of the source around the z axis and translation of the source along the z axis does not change the source and hence does not change the field. The current is independent of time and so we assume that the fields are as well. Hence, the last term in (1), the displacement current, is zero. The law is then used with S, a surface having its enclosing contour C at the arbitrary radius r, as shown in Fig. 1.4.2. Then the area and line elements are da = rdφdriz ; ds = iφ rdφ (4) and the right­hand side of (1) becomes � � 2π � r � �02π �0R J · da = S 0 r rdφdr = Jo R r Jo R rdφdr 0 = Jo r 3 2π ; 3R Jo R2 2π ; 3 r R. Thus, � 2πrHφ = 0; 2πRKo ; rR � 0; Ko R ; r rR (11) Thus, the distribution of Hφ is the discontinuous function shown in Fig. 1.4.6. The field tangential to the surface current undergoes a jump that is equal in magnitude 26 Fig. 1.4.7 Ampère’s integral law is applied to surface S � enclosed by a rect­ angular contour that intersects a surface S carrying the current density K. In terms of the unit normal to S, n, the resulting continuity condition is given by (16). to the surface current density. Ampère’s Continuity Condition. A surface current density in a surface S causes a discontinuity of the magnetic field intensity. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.4.6. To obtain a general relation between fields evaluated to either side of S, a rectan­ gular surface of integration is mounted so that it intersects S as shown in Fig. 1.4.7. The normal to S is in the plane of the surface of integration. The length l of the rectangle is assumed small enough so that the surface of integration can be consid­ ered plane over this length. The width w of the rectangle is assumed to be much smaller than l . It is further convenient to introduce, in addition to the normal n to S, the mutually orthogonal unit vectors is and in as shown. Now apply the integral form of Ampère’s law, (1), to the rectangular surface of area lw. For the right­hand side we obtain � � J · da + S� S� ∂ �o E · da � K · in l ∂t (12) Only J gives a contribution, and then only if there is an infinite current density over the zero thickness of S, as required by the definition of the surface current density, (9). The time rate of change of a finite displacement flux density integrated over zero area gives zero, and hence there is no contribution from the second term. The left­hand side of Ampère’s law, (1), is a contour integral following the rectangle. Because w has been assumed to be very small compared with l, and H is assumed finite, no contribution is made by the two short sides of the rectangle. Hence, l is · (Ha − Hb ) = K · in l (13) From Fig. 1.4.7, note that i s = in × n (14) 27 The cross and dot can be interchanged in this scalar triple product without affecting the result (Appendix 1), so introduction of (14) into (13) gives in · n × (Ha − Hb ) = in · K (15) Finally, note that the vector in is arbitrary so long as it lies in the surface S. Since it multiplies vectors tangential to the surface, it can be omitted. n × (Ha − Hb ) = K (16) There is a jump in the tangential magnetic field intensity as one passes through a surface current. Note that (16) gives a prediction consistent with what was found for the illustration in Fig. 1.4.6. 1.5 CHARGE CONSERVATION IN INTEGRAL FORM Embedded in the laws of Gauss and Ampère is a relationship that must exist between the charge and current densities. To see this, first apply Ampère’s law to a closed surface, such as sketched in Fig. 1.5.1. If the contour C is regarded as the“drawstring” and S as the “bag,” then this limit is one in which the “string” is drawn tight so that the contour shrinks to zero. Thus, the open surface integrals of (1.4.1) become closed, while the contour integral vanishes. � � d (1) J · da + �o E · da = 0 dt S S But now, in view of Gauss’ law, the surface integral of the electric displacement can be replaced by the total charge enclosed. That is, (1.3.1) is used to write (1) as � J · da + S d dt � ρdv = 0 V (2) This is the law of conservation of charge. If there is a net current out of the volume shown in Fig. 1.5.2, (2) requires that the net charge enclosed be decreasing with time. Charge conservation, as expressed by (2), was a compelling reason for Maxwell to add the electric displacement term to Ampère’s law. Without the displacement current density, Ampère’s law would be inconsistent with charge conservation. That is, if the second term in (1) would be absent, then so would the second term in (2). If the displacement current term is dropped in Ampère’s law, then net current cannot enter, or leave, a volume. The conservation of charge is consistent with the intuitive picture of the rela­ tionship between charge and current developed in Example 1.2.1. Example 1.5.1. Continuity of Convection Current 28 Fig. 1.5.1 Contour C enclosing an open surface can be thought of as the drawstring of a bag that can be closed to create a closed surface. Fig. 1.5.2 decrease. Current density leaves a volume V and hence the net charge must Fig. 1.5.3 In steady state, charge conservation requires that the cur­ rent density entering through the x = 0 plane be the same as that leaving through the plane at x = x. The steady state current of electrons accelerated through vacuum by a uniform electric field is described in Example 1.2.1 by assuming that in any plane x = con­ stant the current density is the same. That this must be true is now seen formally by applying the charge conservation integral theorem to the volume shown in Fig. 1.5.3. Here the lower surface is in the injection plane x = 0, where the current density is known to be Jo . The upper surface is at the arbitrary level denoted by x. Because the steady state prevails, the time derivative in (2) is zero. The remaining surface integral has contributions only from the top and bottom surfaces. Evaluation of these, with the recognition that the area element on the top surface is (ix dydz) while it is (−ix dydz) on the bottom surface, makes it clear that AJx − AJo = 0 ⇒ ρvx = Jo (3) This same relation was used in Example 1.2.1, (1.2.4), as the basis for converting from a particle point of view to the one used here, where (x, y, z) are independent of t. Example 1.5.2. Current Density and Time­Varying Charge 29 Fig. 1.5.4 With the given axially symmetric charge distribution pos­ itive and decreasing with time (∂ρ/∂t < 0), the radial current density is positive, as shown. With the charge density a given function of time with an axially symmetric spatial distribution, (2) can be used to deduce the current density. In this example, the charge density is ρ = ρo (t)e−r/a (4) and can be pictured as shown in Fig. 1.5.4. The function of time ρo is given, as is the dimension a. As the first step in finding J, we evaluate the volume integral in (2) for a circular cylinder of radius r having z as its axis and length l in the z direction. � � l� 2π � r V r ρo e− a dr(rdφ)dz ρdv = 0 0 � 0 r � = 2πla2 1 − e− a 1 + r �� ρo a (5) The axial symmetry demands that J is in the radial direction and indepen­ dent of φ and z. Thus, the evaluation of the surface integral in (2) amounts to a multiplication of Jr by the area 2πrl, and that equation becomes � r � 2πrlJr + 2πla2 1 − e− a 1 + r �� dρo =0 a dt (6) Finally, this expression can be solved for Jr . Jr = � dρo a2 � − ar � r� 1+ e −1 r a dt (7) Under the assumption that the charge density is positive and decreasing, so that dρo /dt < 0, the radial distribution of Jr is shown at an instant in time in 30 Fig. 1.5.5 When a charge q is introduced into an essentially grounded metal sphere, a charge −q is induced on its inner surface. The inte­ gral form of charge conservation, applied to the surface S, shows that i = dq/dt. The net excursion of the integrated signal is then a direct measurement of q. Fig. 1.5.4. In this case, the radial current density is positive at any radius r because the net charge within that radius, given by (5), is decreasing with time. The integral form of charge conservation provides the link between the current carried by a wire and the charge. Thus, if we can measure a current, this law provides the basis for measuring the net charge. The following demonstration illustrates its use. Demonstration 1.5.1. Measurement of Charge In Demonstration 1.3.1, the net charge is deduced from mechanical measurements and Coulomb’s force law. Here that same charge is deduced electrically. The “ball” carrying the charge is stuck to the end of a thin plastic rod, as in Fig. 1.5.5. The objective is to measure this charge, q, without removing it from the ball. We know from the discussion of Gauss’ law in Sec. 1.3 that this charge is the source of an electric field. In general, this field terminates on charges of opposite sign. Thus, the net charge that terminates the field originating from q is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to q. Measurement of this “image” charge is tantamount to measuring q. How can we design a metal electrode so that we are guaranteed that all of the lines of E originating from q will be terminated on its surface? It would seem that the electrode should essentially surround q. Thus, in the experiment shown in Fig. 1.5.5, the charge is transported to the interior of a metal sphere through a hole in its top. This sphere is grounded through a resistance R and also surrounded by a grounded shield. This resistance is made low enough so that there is essentially no electric field in the region between the spherical electrode, and the surrounding shield. As a result, there is negligible charge on the outside of the electrode and the net charge on the spherical electrode is just that inside, namely −q. Now consider the application of (2) to the surface S shown in Fig. 1.5.5. The surface completely encloses the spherical electrode while excluding the charge q at its center. On the outside, it cuts through the wire connecting the electrode to the resistance R. Thus, the volume integral in (2) gives the net charge −q, while 31 contributions to the surface integral only come from where S cuts through the wire. By definition, the integral of J · da over the cross­section of the wire gives the current i (amps). Thus, (2) becomes simply i+ d(−q) dq =0⇒i= dt dt (8) This current is the result of having pushed the charge through the hole to a position where all the field lines terminated on the spherical electrode.3 Although small, the current through the resistor results in a voltage. v � iR = R dq dt (9) The integrating circuit is introduced into the experiment in Fig. 1.5.5 so that the oscilloscope directly displays the charge. With this circuit goes a gain A such that � vo = A vdt = ARq (10) Then, the voltage vo to which the trace on the scope rises as the charge is inserted through the hole reflects the charge q. This measurement of q corroborates that of Demonstration 1.3.1. In retrospect, because S and V are arbitrary in the integral laws, the experi­ ment need not be carried out using an electrode and shield that are spherical. These could just as well have the shape of boxes. Charge Conservation Continuity Condition. The continuity condition asso­ ciated with charge conservation can be derived by applying the integral law to the same pillbox­shaped volume used to derive Gauss’ continuity condition, (1.3.17). It can also be found by simply recognizing the similarity between the integral laws of Gauss and charge conservation. To make this similarity clear, rewrite (2) putting the time derivative under the integral. In doing so, d/dt must again be replaced by ∂/∂t, because the time derivative now operates on ρ, a function of t and r. � � J · da + S V ∂ρ dV = 0 ∂t (11) Comparison of (11) with Gauss’ integral law, (1.3.1), shows the similarity. The role of �o E in Gauss’ law is played by J, while that of ρ is taken by −∂ρ/∂t. Hence, by analogy with the continuity condition for Gauss’ law, (1.3.17), the continuity condition for charge conservation is 3 Note that if we were to introduce the charged ball without having the spherical electrode essentially grounded through the resistance R, charge conservation (again applied to the surface S) would require that the electrode retain charge neutrality. This would mean that there would be a charge q on the outside of the electrode and hence a field between the electrode and the surrounding shield. With the charge at the center and the shield concentric with the electrode, this outside field would be the same as in the absence of the electrode, namely the field of a point charge, (1.3.12). 32 Fig. 1.6.1 Integration line for definition of electromotive force. n · (Ja − Jb ) + ∂σs =0 ∂t (12) Implicit in this condition is the assumption that J is finite. Thus, the condition does not include the possibility of a surface current. 1.6 FARADAY’S INTEGRAL LAW The laws of Gauss and Ampère relate fields to sources. The statement of charge conservation implied by these two laws relates these sources. Thus, the previous three sections either relate fields to their sources or interrelate the sources. In this and the next section, integral laws are introduced that do not involve the charge and current densities. Faraday’s integral law states that the circulation of E around a contour C is determined by the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the surface enclosed by that contour (the magnetic induction). � E · ds = − C d dt � µo H · da S (1) As in Ampère’s integral law and Fig. 1.4.1, the right­hand rule relates ds and da. The electromotive force, or EMF, between points (a) and (b) along the path P shown in Fig. 1.6.1 is defined as � (b) Eab = E · ds (2) (a) We will accept this definition for now and look forward to a careful development of the circumstances under which the EMF is measured as a voltage in Chaps. 4 and 10. Electric Field Intensity with No Circulation. First, suppose that the time rate of change of the magnetic flux is negligible, so that the electric field is essentially 33 Fig. 1.6.2 Uniform electric field intensity Eo , between plane parallel uniform distributions of surface charge density, has no circulation about contours C1 and C2 . free of circulation. This means that no matter what closed contour C is chosen, the line integral of E must vanish. � E · ds = 0 (3) C We will find that this condition prevails in electroquasistatic systems and that all of the fields in Sec. 1.3 satisfy this requirement. Illustration. A Field Having No Circulation A static field between plane parallel sheets of uniform charge density has no circu­ lation. Such a field, E = Eo ix , exists in the region 0 < y < s between the sheets of surface charge density shown in Fig. 1.6.2. The most convenient contour for testing this claim is denoted C1 in Fig. 1.6.2. Along path 1, E · ds = Eo dy, and integration from y = 0 to y = s gives sEo for the EMF of point (a) relative to point (b). Note that the EMF between the plane parallel surfaces in Fig. 1.6.2 is the same regardless of where the points (a) and (b) are located in the respective surfaces. On segments 2 and 4, E is orthogonal to ds, so there is no contribution to the line integral on these two sections. Because ds has a direction opposite to E on segment 3, the line integral is the integral from y = 0 to y = s of E · ds = −Eo dy. The result of this integration is −sEo , so the contributions from segments 1 and 3 cancel, and the circulation around the closed contour is indeed zero.4 In this planar geometry, a field that has only a y component cannot be a function of x without incurring a circulation. This is evident from carrying out this integration for such a field on the rectangular contour C1 . Contributions to paths 1 and 3 cancel only if E is independent of x. Example 1.6.1. Contour Integration To gain some appreciation for what it means to require of E that it have no circu­ lation, no matter what contour is chosen, consider the somewhat more complicated contour C2 in the uniform field region of Fig. 1.6.2. Here, C2 is composed of the 4 In setting up the line integral on a contour such as 3, which has a direction opposite to that in which the coordinate increases, it is tempting to double­account for the direction of ds not only be recognizing that ds = −iy dy, but by integrating from y = s to y = 0 as well. 34 semicircle (5) and the straight segment (6). On the latter, E is perpendicular to ds and so there is no contribution there to the circulation. � � � E · ds = � E · ds + C 5 E · ds = 6 E · ds (4) 5 On segment 5, the vector differential ds is first written in terms of the unit vector iφ , and that vector is in turn written (with the help of the vector decomposition shown in the figure) in terms of the Cartesian unit vectors. ds = iφ Rdφ; iφ = iy cos φ − ix sin φ (5) It follows that on the segment 5 of contour C2 E · ds = Eo cos φRdφ (6) and integration gives � � π Eo cos φRdφ = [Eo R sin φ]π0 = 0 E · ds = C (7) 0 So for contour C2 , the circulation of E is also zero. When the electromotive force between two points is path independent, we call it the voltage between the two points. For a field having no circulation, the EMF must be independent of path. This we will recognize formally in Chap. 4. Electric Field Intensity with Circulation. The second limiting situation, typical of the magnetoquasistatic systems to be considered, is primarily concerned with the circulation of E, and hence with the part of the electric field generated by the time­varying magnetic flux density. The remarkable fact is that Faraday’s law holds for any contour, whether in free space or in a material. Often, however, the contour of interest coincides with a conducting wire, which comprises a coil that links a magnetic flux density. Illustration. Terminal EMF of a Coil A coil with one turn is shown in Fig. 1.6.3. Contour (1) is inside the wire, while (2) joins the terminals along a defined path. With these contours constituting C, Faraday’s integral law as given by (1) determines the terminal electromotive force. If the electrical resistance of the wire can be regarded as zero, in the sense that the electric field intensity inside the wire is negligible, the contour integral reduces to an integration from (b) to (a).5 In view of the definition of the EMF, (2), this integration gives the negative of the EMF. Thus, Faraday’s law gives the terminal EMF as � d λf ≡ µo H · da (8) Eab = λf ; dt S 5 With the objectives here limited to attaching an intuitive meaning to Faraday’s law, we will give careful attention to the conditions required for this terminal relation to hold in Chaps. 8, 9, and 10. 35 Fig. 1.6.3 Line segment (1) through a perfectly conducting wire and (2) joining the terminals (a) and (b) form closed contour. Fig. 1.6.4 Demonstration of voltmeter reading induced at terminals of a coil in accordance with Faraday’s law. To plot data on graph, normalize voltage to Vo as defined with (11). Because I is the peak current, v is the peak voltage. where λf , the total flux of magnetic field linking the coil, is defined as the flux linkage. Note that Faraday’s law makes it possible to measure µo H electrically (as now demonstrated). Demonstration 1.6.1. Voltmeter Reading Induced by Magnetic Induction The rectangular coil shown in Fig. 1.6.4 is used to measure the magnetic field intensity associated with current in a wire. Thus, the arrangement and field are the same as in Demonstration 1.4.1. The height and length of the coil are h and l as shown, and because the coil has N turns, it links the flux enclosed by one turn N times. With the upper conductors of the coil at a distance R from the wire, and the magnetic field intensity taken as that of a line current, given by (1.4.10), evaluation of (8) gives � z+l � R+h λf = µo N z R � i drdz = 2πr � µo N l h ln 1 + 2π R �� i (9) In the experiment, the current takes the form i = I sin ωt (10) 36 where ω = 2π(60). The EMF between the terminals then follows from (8) and (9) as � h� µo N lωI cos ωt; Vo ≡ (11) v = Vo ln 1 + R 2π A voltmeter reads the electromotive force between the two points to which it is connected, provided certain conditions are satisfied. We will discuss these in Chap. 8. In a typical experiment using a 20­turn coil with dimensions of h = 8 cm, l = 20 cm, I = 6 amp peak, the peak voltage measured at the terminals with a spacing R = 8 cm is v = 1.35 mV. To put this data point on the normalized plot of Fig. 1.6.4, note that R/h = 1 and the measured v/Vo = 0.7. Faraday’s Continuity Condition. It follows from Faraday’s integral law that the tangential electric field is continuous across a surface of discontinuity, provided that the magnetic field intensity is finite in the neighborhood of the surface of discontinuity. This can be shown by applying the integral law to the incremental surface shown in Fig. 1.4.7, much as was done in Sec. 1.4 for Ampère’s law. With J set equal to zero, there is a formal analogy between Ampère’s integral law, (1.4.1), and Faraday’s integral law, (1). The former becomes the latter if H → E, J → 0, and �o E → −µo H. Thus, Ampère’s continuity condition (1.4.16) becomes the continuity condition associated with Faraday’s law. n × (Ea − Eb ) = 0 (12) At a surface having the unit normal n, the tangential electric field intensity is continuous. 1.7 GAUSS’ INTEGRAL LAW OF MAGNETIC FLUX The net magnetic flux out of any region enclosed by a surface S must be zero. � µo H · da = 0 S (1) This property of flux density is almost implicit in Faraday’s law. To see this, consider that law, (1.6.1), applied to a closed surface S. Such a surface is obtained from an open one by letting the contour shrink to zero, as in Fig. 1.5.1. Then Faraday’s integral law reduces to � d µo H · da = 0 (2) dt S Gauss’ law (1) adds to Faraday’s law the empirical fact that in the beginning, there was no closed surface sustaining a net outward magnetic flux. Illustration. Uniqueness of Flux Linking Coil 37 Fig. 1.7.1 Contour C follows loop of wire having terminals a − b. Because each has the same enclosing contour, the net magnetic flux through surfaces S1 and S2 must be the same. Fig. 1.7.2 (a) The field of a line current induces a flux in a horizon­ tal rectangular coil. (b) The open surface has the coil as an enclosing contour. Rather than being in the plane of the contour, this surface is composed of the five segments shown. An example is shown in Fig. 1.7.1. Here a wire with terminals a − b follows the contour C. According to (1.6.8), the terminal EMF is found by integrating the normal magnetic flux density over a surface having C as its edge. But which surface? Figure 1.7.1 shows two of an infinite number of possibilities. The terminal EMF can be unique only if the integrals over S1 and S2 result in the same answer. Taken together, S1 and S2 form a closed surface. The magnetic flux continuity integral law, (1), requires that the net flux out of this closed surface be zero. This is equivalent to the statement that the flux passing through S1 in the direction of da1 must be equal to that passing through S2 in the direction of da2 . We will formalize this statement in Chap. 8. Example 1.7.1. Magnetic Flux Linked by Coil and Flux Continuity In the configuration of Fig. 1.7.2, a line current produces a magnetic field intensity that links a one­turn coil. The left conductor in this coil is directly below the wire at a distance d. The plane of the coil is horizontal. Nevertheless, it is convenient to specify the position of the right conductor in terms of a distance R from the line current. What is the net flux linked by the coil? The most obvious surface to use is one in the same plane as the coil. However, 38 in doing so, account must be taken of the way in which the unit normal to the surface varies in direction relative to the magnetic field intensity. Selection of another surface, to which the magnetic field intensity is either normal or tangential, simplifies the calculation. On surfaces S2 and S3 , the normal direction is the direction of the magnetic field. Note also that because the field is tangential to the end surfaces, S4 and S5 , these make no contribution. For the same reason, there is no contribution from S6 , which is at the radius ro from the wire. Thus, � � λf ≡ µo H · da = S � µo H · da + µo H · da S2 (3) S3 On S2 the unit normal is iφ , while on S3 it is −iφ . Therefore, (3) becomes � l� � l� R λf = d µo Hφ drdz − 0 ro µo Hφ drdz 0 (4) ro With the field intensity for a line current given by (1.4.10), it follows that λf = d� li � R � µo li � R ln − ln = µo ln 2π ro ro 2π d (5) That ro does not appear in the answer is no surprise, because if the surface S1 had been used, ro would not have been brought into the calculation. Magnetic Flux Continuity Condition. With the charge density set equal to zero, the magnetic continuity integral law (1) takes the same form as Gauss’ integral law (1.3.1). Thus, Gauss’ continuity condition (1.3.17) becomes one representing the magnetic flux continuity law by making the substitution �o E → µo H. n · (µo Ha − µo Hb ) = 0 (6) The magnetic flux density normal to a surface is continuous. 1.8 SUMMARY Electromagnetic fields, whether they be inside a transistor, on the surfaces of an antenna or in the human nervous system, are defined in terms of the forces they produce. In every example involving electromagnetic fields, charges are moving somewhere in response to electromagnetic fields. Hence, our starting point in this introductory chapter is the Lorentz force on an elementary charge, (1.1.1). Repre­ sented by this law is the effect of the field on the charge and current (charge in motion). The subsequent sections are concerned with the laws that predict how the field sources, the charge, and current densities introduced in Sec. 1.2, in turn give rise to the electric and magnetic fields. Our presentation is aimed at putting these 39 laws to work. Hence, the empirical origins of these laws that would be evident from a historical presentation might not be fully appreciated. Elegant as they appear, Maxwell’s equations are no more than a summary of experimental results. Each of our case studies is a potential test of the basic laws. In the interest of being able to communicate our subject, each of the basic laws is given a name. In the interest of learning our subject, each of these laws should now be memorized. A summary is given in Table 1.8.1. By means of the examples and demonstrations, each of these laws should be associated with one or more physical consequences. From the Lorentz force law and Maxwell’s integral laws, the units of variables and constants are established. For the SI units used here, these are summarized in Table 1.8.2. Almost every practical result involves the free space permittivity �o and/or the free space permeability µo . Although these are summarized in Table 1.8.2, confidence also comes from having these natural constants memorized. A common unit for measuring the magnetic flux density is the Gauss, so the conversion to the SI unit of Tesla is also given with the abbreviations. A goal in this chapter has also been the use of examples to establish the mathematical significance of volume, surface, and contour integrations. At the same time, important singular source distributions have been defined and their associated fields derived. We will make extensive use of point, line, and surface sources and the associated fields. In dealing with surface sources, a continuity condition should be associated with each of the integral laws. These are summarized in Table 1.8.3. The continuity conditions should always be associated with the integral laws from which they originate. As terms are added to the integral laws to account for macroscopic media, there will be corresponding changes in the continuity condi­ tions. REFERENCES [1] M. Faraday, Experimental Researches in Electricity, R. Taylor Publisher (1st­9th series), 1832­1835, 1 volume, various pagings; “From the Philosophical Transactions 1832­1835,” London, England. [2] J.C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., 1891, reissued by Dover, N.Y. (1954). 40 TABLE 1.8.1 SUMMARY OF MAXWELL’S INTEGRAL LAWS IN FREE SPACE NAME INTEGRAL LAW � Gauss’ Law Ampere’s Law Faraday’s Law � C S C S � S � S V ρdv d dt J · da + d E · ds = − dt Magnetic Flux Continuity Charge Conservation � H · ds = � � �o E · da = � S EQ. NUMBER � S 1.3.1 �o E · da µo H · da µo H · da = 0 J · da + d dt � V ρdv = 0 1.4.1 1.6.1 1.7.1 1.5.2 41 TABLE 1.8.2 DEFINITIONS AND UNITS OF FIELD VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS (basic unit of mass, kg, is replaced by V­C­s2 /m2 ) VARIABLE OR PARAMETER NOMENCLATURE BASIC UNITS DERIVED UNITS Electric Field Intensity E V/m V/m Electric Displacement Flux Density �o E C/m2 C/m2 Charge Density ρ C/m3 C/m3 Surface Charge Density σs C/m2 C/m2 Magnetic Field Intensity H C/(ms) A/m µo H Vs/m2 T Current Density J C/(m2 s) A/m2 Surface Current Density K C/(ms) A/m Free Space Permittivity �o = 8.854 × 10−12 C/(Vm) F/m Free Space Permeability µo = 4π × 10−7 Vs2 /(Cm) H/m Magnetic Flux Density UNIT ABBREVIATIONS Ampère A Kilogram kg Coulomb C Meter m Farad F Second Henry H Tesla s 4 T (10 Gauss) Volt V 42 TABLE 1.8.3 SUMMARY OF CONTINUITY CONDITIONS IN FREE SPACE NAME CONTINUITY CONDITION EQ. NUMBER n · (�o Ea − �o Eb ) = σs 1.3.17 Ampère’s Law n × (Ha − Hb ) = K 1.4.16 Faraday’s Law n × (Ea − Eb ) = 0 1.6.14 Magnetic Flux Continuity n · (µo Ha − µo Hb ) = 0 1.7.6 Charge Conservation n · (Ja − Jb ) + Gauss’ Law ∂σs ∂t =0 1.5.12