Neural Communication

Neural communication Resting potential -70 mV inside Neuron is polarized Action potential (all-or-none) Neurotransmitters bind to dendrites Neuron reaches-55 mV Becomes depolarized Sodium/potassium ions Signal moves down the axon Neurotransmitters release to synapse Must repolarize Reuptake of neurotransmitters Return to -70mV Refractory period (can't fire) Myelin sheath Insulates motor neurons Speeds message Decay of myelin sheath multiple sclerosis Intelligence Excitatory neurotransmitters Acetylcholine (skeletal museles) Serotonin (depression/general well-being) Dopamine (high-schizophrenia; low-depression) Norephinephrine (Alertness, linked to fight-or-flight) Endorphins (pain relief) Inhibitory neurotransmitter (GABA) Effect of agonists/antagonists NEUROSCIENCE The brain Organization of the nervous system Peripheral nervous system Autonomic nervous system CNS Brain and spinal cord Somatic nervous system Afferent neurons Efferent neurons Interneurons nervous system Sympathetic thetic nervous system Parasympa- Plasticity-neurons can be used for new purposes Hindbrain: Cerebellum-coordination Medulla breathing, heartbeat Pons-sleep, arousal, dreams Reticular formation-arousal Midbrain: At the intersection of forebrain & hindbrain (spatial awareness) Forebrain: Thalamus sensory switchboard Limbic system-emotion Hippocampus (memory) Amygdala (fear, anger) Hypothalamus (biological needs, e.g. hunger, sex, thirst) Cerebrum/cerebral cortex Prefrontal cortex (planning, or ganization, risk assessment) Frontal lobes (motor cortex, mirror neurons) Broca's area (speech) Parietal lobes (somatosensory cortex) * Angular gyrus Temporal lobes (auditory cortex) Wernicke's area Occipital lobes (visual cortex) Hemispheric specialization Split-brain surgery (corpus callosum severed) *Used to treat uncontrolled seizures Seen in left visual field, processed in rt. hemisphere Left hemisphere Language/logic Right hemisphere musical/recognition Nonverbal/spatial/ Methods of study Function EEG Structure Lesions CT scan MRI PET scan IMRI The endocrine sys-tem Pituitary-master gland (directed by the hypothalamus) Biochemically the same as neurotransmitters Adrenal gland-stress hormones Perspectives Introspection Wilhelm Wundt-Ist lab, Germany Structuralism William James-1st text, Harvard Functionalism Gestalt total experience "the whole" Perception Psychoanalysis Freud Behaviorism Watson (Little Albert), Skinner (operant conditioning) Humanism (Maslow, Rogers Biological brain chemistry, hor-mones, ele Evolutionary (sociobiology)-impact of traits that promote survival of species Cognitive thinking patterns Sociocultural-environment Ethics Animal research Clear scientific purpose Humane treatment Legal acquisition of subjects Limit suffering to least feasible Human research Informed consent Limit deception No coercion Protect from harm Confidentiality Debrief afterwards HISTORY & RESEARCH Psychological research Limits of intuition Hindsight bias Overconfidence Confirmation biznes Scientific attitude Curiosity Skepticism Humility Scientific method Theories Hypothesis Operational definitions Replication Methodology Case study Survey Wording effects Random sampling False consensus effect Naturalistic observation Must avoid Hawthorne Effect Correlational studies Prediction NOT CAUSATION Illusory correlation Superstition Experiment (see experimentation) Experimentation Cause & effect Procedure: Blind study Double-blind study Experimental condition vs. Control condition Independent variable Experimenter manipulates Dependent variable Experimenter measures Confounding variables Random selection Random assignment Measuring data Descriptive statistics Central tendency (averages) Mean Median Mode Normal curve Correlations (relationships) Scatterplot Correlation coefficient Variation Range Standard deviation Inferential statistics Do my results matter? Sample size influence • Significant differences p<.05 (alpha level) The basics Sensation vs. perception Bottom-up processing Top-down processing Prosopagnosia Thresholds Psychophysics Absolute threshold Signal detection theory Subliminal messages Difference threshold (JND) Weber's Law/Fechner's Law Sensory adaptation Transduction Receptors Touch Other senses Pressure, temperature, pain Nociceptors Gate-control theory Taste (gustatory sense chemical) Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami Taste buds Sensory interaction MeGurk effect Smell (olfactory sense chemical) Does not go through the thalamus Direct route to limbic system Kinesthesis Vestibular sense semicircular canals Synaesthesia SENSATION Vision 1.ight energy Wavelength (color) Amplitude (brightness) Parts of the eye Comea Pupil Lens Accommodation Retina (transduction here) Rods (120 million) Cones (6 million) Fovea Bipolar cells Ganglion cells Optic nerve to occipital lobe Blind spot Visual acuity Nearsightedness/farsightedness Feature detectors Parallel processing Blindsight Change blindness Retina to thalamus to cortex Color interpretation Young-Helmholtz theory Subtractive color mixing Additive color mixing Opponent-process theory Afterimages Color constancy Audition (hearing) Sound energy Frequency (pitch) Amplitude (loudness) Measured in dB (decibels) Every 10 dB 10 times louder Parts of the car Outer ear Pinna (visible part) Auditory canal Middle ear Tympanic membrane (eardrum) Ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) Inner car Oval window Cochlea Basilar membrane Hair cells (transduction here) Organ of Corti Semicircular canals (NOT for hearing) Auditory nerve to temporal lobe Perceiving sound Place theory Frequency theory Volley principle Sound localization Hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss Cochlear implant Conduction hearing loss The basics Sensation vs. perception Bottom-up processing Top-down processing Prosopagnosia Selective attention Cocktail party effect Inattentional (change) blindness Choice blindness Visual capture Perceptual organization Figure-ground relationship Gestalt principles Proximity Similarity Continuity Connectedness Closure PERCEPTION Visual perception Depth perception Binocular cues Retinal disparity Convergence Visual cliff Monocular cues Linear perspective Relative size Interposition Relative clarity Texture gradient Relative height Light & shadow Motion perception Relative motion (motion parallax) Stroboscopic movement Phi phenomenon Constancies Color constancy Size constancy Shape constancy Lightness constancy Illusions Muller-Lyer illusion Cultural influence Ponzo illusion Moon illusion Sensory deprivation Critical periods Other principles Perceptual adaptation Perceptual set Context effects Human factors ESP (extra-sensory perception)? Parapsychology Telepathy Clairvoyance Precognition Psychokinesis Way to test: Ganzfeld procedure Biology of sleep Biological rhythms Circadian rhythm (25 hr cycle) Light (superchiasmic nucleus) Pineal gland (near thalamus) Melatonin Adenosine (sleep-inducing) Sleep stages Prior to stage 1 (alpha waves) Stage 1 (theta waves) 5 min. Hypnagogic sensations Stage 2 (K-complexes, sleep spindles) Approx. 20 minutes Stage 3 (<50% delta waves) Stage 4 (>50% delta waves) Stage 3 & 4-slow wave sleep Order of stages 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, RFM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM REM-paradoxical sleep Active brain, paralyzed body Benefits Memory consolidation Concentration Mood Moderates hunger/reduces obesity Improves immune response Disorders Insomnia (10-15% of adults) Narcolepsy Sleep apnea Night terrors (stage 4) Sleepwalking (stage 4) STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Dreaming Freud's analysis Manifest content vs. Latent content Information-processing theory Filing experience Synthesizing memory Pruning connections Build neural pathways Activation-synthesis theory Pons generates neural firing Lucid dreams Conscious awareness of dream state Hypnosis Mesmer (18th century) Susceptibility Creativity, desire influenees Therapeutic capacity Posthypnotic suggestions Pain alleviation Selective attention? Theories: Social influence theory Emphasizes desire of subjects to do well Divided consciousness theory Emphasizes dissociation Hilgard's "hidden observer" Psychoactive drugs Tolerance/withdrawal Involves neuroadaptation Addiction Depressants Alcohol Reduces inhibitions Impairs activity of frontal lobe Disrupts formation of LTM Barbiturates (tranquilizers) Reduce anxiety, mimic alcohol Opiates (endorphin agonists) Morphine, heroin, oxycontin Stimulants Amphetamines/meth Cocaine-rush/crash Ecstasy also a hallucinogen Stimulates serotonin Interferes w/sleep, impairs memory, reduces immune re-sponse Hallucinogens LSD-serotonin agonist Marijuana cannabinoid agonist Disrupts memory formation. Reverse tolerance Physiology of hunger Keys' research Cannon's research Body chemistry Insulin up, glucose down Hypothalamus stimulation Lateral hunger increases Orexin produced Ventromedial-hunger declines Hormones Ghrelin hunger increases PYY-suppresses hunger Proteins Leptin decreases hunger Orexin increases hunger Psychology of hunger 11 Neophobia (avoidance of unfamiliar food) Eating disorders Anorexia nervosa At least 15% underweight Continue to view self as fat Bulimia nervosa Binge-purge pattern Not necessarily low weight Obesity (30% in US) MOTIVATION Theories of motivation Instinct theory (evolutionary) - fixed patterns, unlearned Drive-reduction theory (Clark Hull) Object is homeostasis - Pulled by incentives (external) Arousal theory Yerkes-Dodson Law Easy task-high arousal Difficult task moderate Maslow's hierarchy of needs Physiological at base, then safety, belonging & love, esteem, self-actualization, transcendence Need to belong Ostracism-activates anterior cin-gulate cortex (also activates with pain) Achievement motivation Flow I/O psychology Personnel psychology To avoid the interviewer illusion Structured interviews 360-degree feedback Grit (determination, breeds success) Theory X vs. Theory Y Task leadership vs. social leadership Great person theory Transformational leadership Physiology of sex Kinsey report Masters & Johnson research Sexual response eyele Excitement plateau orgasm resolution (refractory period) Sexual disorders Premature ejaculation Frectile dysfunction Orgasmic disorder Hormones Estrogen/androgens (testosterone) Psychology of sex External stimuli Habituation occurs Decreased satisfaction w/sexual part- ners Gender roles/gender identity Sexual orientation Estimated 3-4% men, 1-2% women But could be higher (response bias) Identical twin studies support genetic basis Hypothalamus differences (LeVay) Anterior commissure differences Fraternal birth order effect Same sex attraction in animals (6-10%) Finger length/fingerprint ridges (7th/16th week of development)