Chapter 14 A New Birth of Freedom

Chapter 14: A New Birth of Freedom The First Modern War Why is the Civil War considered the first modern war?  1st mass armies confronting each other with weapons created by the industrial revolution The Two Combatants    Advantages of the North o Population: 22 million  Confederacy’s population: only 9 million (3.5 million slaves) o Better resources  Manufacturing  Railroad mileage  Finances Advantages of South o North had to invade and conquer an area larger than western Europe o Confederate soldiers were highly motivated fighters—defending families and homes Recruitment was first patriotic and many volunteered, later both sides resorted to draf o North: consisted of farm boys, shopkeepers, artisans, urban workers o South: consisted of non-slaveholding small farmers with slaveowners dominating officer corps Technology of War           Railroad junctions in Atlanta and Petersburg became major military objectives o Railroads transported troops and supplies Famous sea battle between Union’s vessel Monitor and the Confederate’s vessel Merrimac, 1862 o Superiority of ironclad ships v. wooden vessels Telegraph used for military communication Observation balloons to view enemy lines Primitive hand grenades and submarines Revolution in arms manufacturing—the rifle o Replaced tradition musket (only accurate at short range) o Rifle could shoot 600 yards away o Made important heavy fortifications and trenches Death toll of war: 750,000 (equivalent to 7 million today) Death toll exceeds the total number of Americans who died in all the nation’s other wars (Revolution to Iraq) Medical care primitive o Measles, dysentery, malaria, typhus killed more soldiers than combat First war where large numbers of Americans captured and held in military prisons The Public and the War   Propaganda efforts to mobilize public opinion (lithographs, souvenirs, sheet music, pamphlets) o Reaffirmed Northern values, depicted Democrats as treasonous, accused South of crimes against Union soldiers and civilians Newspapers reported results of battles and long lists of casualties Mobilizing Resources  At the outbreak of war, both sides were unprepared 1 o o o o o o No national railroad gauge—trains could only run on 1 track No national banking system No tax system—couldn’t raise money needed for war No accurate maps of south Union naval ships (set up to patrol coastline and strangle Confederate economy) only consisted on 90 vessels, some steam powered Problem purchasing and distributing food, weapons, and other supplies  South suffered the most from this Military Strategies   Confederate commander General Robert E. Lee o Adopted defensive strategy with occasional thrusts into North o Hoped a series of defeats would weaken North and lead it to recognizing Southern independence Union o Early generals concentrated on occupying southern territory and attempting to capture Richmond (Confederate capital)  Attacked sporadically and withdrew afer battle  This sacrificed North’s manpower superiority and allowed South to concentrate smaller forces when battle delayed o Lincoln realized that simply capturing Richmond and occupying southern territory wouldn’t win war  Defeating southern armies was North’s battlefield objective  Policy of emancipation—slavery must be destroyed to end economic and social problems The War Begins   Most fighting in the East took place in narrow corridor between Washington and Richmond (100 mi. apart) First Battle of Bull Run: The first land engagement of the Civil War which took place on July 21, 1861, at Manassas Junction, Virginia, and at which Union troops quickly retreated o George B. McClellan—commander of Union Army of the Potomac  Reluctant to commit men to battle  Tended to overestimate enemy force’s size  He was a democrat—hoped for compromise and not much loss of life The War in the East, 1862     McClellan finally led his army of more then 100,000 men into Virginia o Urged by Republican newspapers, Lincoln, and Congress o Robert E. Lee forced them back to Washington Second Battle of Bull Run: Civil War engagement that took place one year afer the first Battle of Bull Run, on August 29-30, during which Confederates captured the federal supply depot at Manassas Junction, Virginia, and forced Union troops back to Washington o Second victory for Lee Lee successful on defense—launched an invasion on North Battle of Antietam: One of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War, fought to standoff on September 17, 1862, in western Maryland o McClellan and Army of the Potomac repelled Lee’s advances o Single day of fighting—4,000 men killed, 18,000 wounded (2,000 later died) o More Americans died on September 17, 1862 than any other day in nation’s history The War in the West  February 1862, Ulysses S. Grant won Union’s 1st significant victory o Captured Forts Henry and Donelson in TN 2   April 1862, naval forces under Admiral David G. Farragut steamed into New Orleans o Gave Union control of South’s largest city and the rich sugar plantation counties to its south and west April 1862, Confederates surprise attacked Grant at Shiloh, TN o Grant withstood attack The Coming of Emancipation How did a war to preserve the Union become a war to end slavery? Slavery and the War     Lincoln’s initial stance on slavery o Believed it was irrelevant to war o His focus was keeping border slave states in the Union—Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri and building broadest base of support in North for war effort  Feared emancipation would drive border states (2.6 mill. Population) to Confederate side and alienate conservative Northerners Northern military commanders returned fugitive slaves to south o South used slaves as military laborers o Blacks escaped to Union lines General Benjamin F. Butler adopted plan (first in Virginia) of treating escaped slaves as contraband of war— property of military value subject to confiscation o “The contrabands”: Slaves who sought refuge in Union military camps or who lived in areas of the Confederacy under Union control Slaves took actions that helped whites move toward emancipation o Blacks called war the “freedom war” o Escaped slaves consisted of whole families o Passed military intelligence and detailed knowledge of Southern terrain Steps toward Emancipation    Radical Republicans: Group within the Republican Party in the 1850s and 1860s that advocated strong resistance to the expansion of slavery, opposition to compromise with the South in the secession crisis of 1860-1861, emancipation and arming of black soldiers during the Civil War, and equal civil and political rights for blacks during Reconstruction o Slavery must become target of the war Congressional policy against slavery o March 1862, Congress prohibited army from returning fugitive slaves o Abolition in District of Columbia –compensated slaveowners o Second Confiscation Act—liberated slaves of disloyal owners in Union-occupied territory + Slaves who escaped to Union lines Lincoln’s evolving policy o August 1861, MO Union Commander John C. Fremont decreed freedom of slaves  Lincoln rescinded it—feared of impact on border states o November 1861, proposed border states adopt program of gradual emancipation o December 1862, signed agreement with shady entrepreneur to colonize former slaves in Haiti Lincoln’s Decision  Summer 1863, Lincoln concluded emancipation has become political and military necessity o Lack of military success o Hopes that emancipation would bring slaves in to join Union army 3  o Changing Northern opinion o Hoped this would change Britain’s recognition of southern independence September 22, 1892—afer victory at Antietam, Lincoln issues Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation o Warned if South did lay down its arms, he would decree abolition o Initial northern reaction was not encouraging  1862 election, Democrats made opposition to emancipation their campaign centerpiece The Emancipation Proclamation    Emancipation Proclamation: Declaration issues by President Abraham Lincoln; the preliminary proclamation on September 22, 1862, freed the slaves in areas under Confederate control as of January 1, 1863, the date of the final proclamation, which also authorized the enrollment of black soldiers into the Union army o Did not liberate all slaves because its legality derived from the president’s authority as military commander-in-chief to combat the South’s rebellion  Did not apply to loyal border states—never seceded  Did no apply to areas of the Confederacy occupied by Union soldiers (TN, parts of VA and LA)  Applied to most of South’s slaves—3 million men, women, children  Because they were still in Confederate territory, they waited for Union victory Lincoln committed to the enlistment of black soldiers Abolition in America was immediate, not gradual o Slaveholders were not compensated for property loss Enlisting Black Troops    Enlisting blacks into troops was one of the most radical provisions in proclamation—administration had feared o Whites would be unwilling to serve with blacks o It would alienate border states remaining in Union Fify-Fourth Massachusetts Volunteers helped end doubts that blacks couldn’t withstand battlefield pressures o Company of free blacks from North—commanded by Robert Gould Shaw (from wealthy Boston family) o July 1863 attack on Fort Wagner, SC—nearly ½ the unit + Shaw died Most black soldiers were emancipated slaves who joined the Union troops in the South o Union forced seized plantation lands in Mississippi Valley  General Lorenzo Thomas raised 50 regiments of black soldiers (76,000 men) o Another large group formed at border states exempt from Emancipation Proclamation  Enlistment here was only route to freedom  Here, Congress expanded proclamation to liberate families of black military service members The Black Soldier     For many black soldiers, service was a liberating experience o Many became leaders of the Reconstruction Era Black soldiers were treated as unequal in army o Segregated units, sometimes under abusive white officers o Paid $10 a month v. $16 a month that whites were paid o Assigned more to labor than combat o Could not raise to rank of commissioned officer (until very end of war) Thanks to black military service, Republicans (in last 2 years of war) came to believe that emancipation must bring with it equal protection of the laws, regardless of race o Granting of retroactive pay to black soldiers in 1865 1864, Lincoln urged governor of Union-occupied Louisiana to give part suffrage to black military members 4 The Second American Revolution  Second American Revolution: The transformation of American government and society brought about by the Civil War How did the Civil War transform the national economy and create a stronger nationstate? Liberty, Union, and Nation     To North, freedom meant for each man to enjoy the product of his labor To South, freedom conveyed mastership and the power to do as they please with other men and the products of other men’s labor Other nations worldwide were also trying to unify their states—but they all had common ethnicities, cultures, and language o Lincoln, tried to unite states based on a set of universal ideas centered on political democracy and human liberty Gettysburg Address summarized Lincoln’s conception of the war’s meaning o “Nation” = a unified political entity, used in place of “Union” of separate states o “All men are created equal”, “new birth of freedom”, sacrifices of Union soldiers would ensure that “government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth” The War and American Religion     Northern Protestant clergy provided religious justification for war Religious press devoted more space to military and political developments than to religious matters Christianity and patriotism joined in a civic religion o War was God’s way of ridding the US of slavery and enabling it to truly become land of the free Government action needed for deaths o Notifying next of kin o Account for dead and missing o Gathered statistics and maintained records of dead and wounded soldiers o Afer war, federal government program located and reburied hundreds of thousands of Union (not Confederate) soldiers in national military cemeteries  Black soldiers included but in segregated sections Liberty in Wartime   Intense new nationalism criticized the policies of Lincoln’s administration o Arbitrary arrests of opposition newspaper editors, Democratic politicians, and individuals who discouraged enlistment o Constitution unclear who possessed power to suspend writ of habeas corpus (disallowed the holding of prisoners without charge)  Lincoln claimed right under war powers twice Ex Parte Milligan: 1866 Supreme Court case that declared it unconstitutional to bring accused persons before military tribunals where civil courts were still operating o Justice David Davis: The constitution is not suspended during wartime The North’s Transformation   The effort to mobilize Union resources enhanced he power of the national government and a rising class of capitalist entrepreneurs In North the war brought economic prosperity o New England mills worked constantly to provide blankets and uniforms o Pennsylvania coal mines and ironworks rapidly expanded production 5 o o Boot and shoe production, meatpacking Agriculture pressed westward to feed army—even with farm boys enlisting  Labor done by immigrants and machinery Government and the Economy    New American nation-state that emerged during Civil War was committed to rapid economic development o Congress adopted policies that promoted economic growth and permanently altered nation’s financial system Homestead Act: 1862 law that authorized Congress to grant 160 acres of free public land to a western settler, who had to live on the land for 5 years to establish title o Effort to encourage agricultural development o Effective January 1, 1863 (same day as Emancipation Proclamation) o Morrill Land Grant College Act: assisted states in establishing agricultural and mechanical colleges Congress made huge money and land grants for internal improvements o 100 million acres to Union Pacific and Central Pacific—charged with building railroad from Missouri River to Pacific coast  *These were the 1st two corporate charters issued by federal government since the Second Bank of the United States in 1816  Required 20,000 Chinese immigrant worked called “coolies” to lay tracks o Transcontinental Railroad: First line across the continent from Omaha, NE to Sacramento, CA, established in 1869 with the linkage of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads at Promontory, UT  Cross country journey went from 4-5 months to 6 days The West and the War         War engulfed Missouri, Kansas, and Indian territories and spread to southwest borderlands o Divided western communities as people went to both armies October 1861, Confederate units in Texas invaded New Mexico o Hoped this would be a pathway to acquiring Southern California and Northern Mexico (southern manifest destiny) o Defeated by Union army and volunteers from Texas and California Lincoln pulled troops from west to protect Washington D.C. o This allowed whites to intrude on Indian lands Sioux Indians killed white farmers in Minnesota o 300 Indians sentenced to death—Lincoln commuted most sentences but 38 still hung  Largest official execution in American history November 1864, Colorado militiamen attacked 700 innocent Cheyenne and Arapahos (children too) Union launched series of campaigns in Southwest against tribes like the Kiowas and Comanches o These tribes raided settlements for goods to trade (women, horses, livestock) Union launched war on Navajo who were victims of other Indian raids o Navajo’s Long Walk: The forced removal of 8,000 Navajos from their lands by Union forces to a reservation in the 1860s Cherokee Indians (slaveowners) forced to give slaves land and incorporate them into society A New Financial System  Need to finance war produced financial changes o Increased tariff to unprecedented heights o Imposed new taxes on production and consumption of goods o Enacted nations first income tax o Borrowed more than $2 million by selling interest-bearing bonds—created immense nation debt 6 Printed more than $400 million in paper money (“greenbacks”)—now legal tender and must be accepted Established a system of nationally chartered banks  Required purchase of government bonds  Given right to issue bank notes as currency “Captains of Industry” o Reshaped nation’s postwar economy or consolidated their fortunes during war  Iron and steel entrepreneur Andrew Carnegie  Oil magnate John D. Rockefeller  Financers Jay Gould and J.P. Morgan  Union beef supplier Philip D. Armour  *These men escaped the draf by buying exemptions or hiring substitutes Federal budget exceeded over $1 billion o Government became nation’s biggest employer  Clerks, tax collectors, other officials o o   Women and War    Women took advantage of wartime labor shortages o Factory jobs, nursing, clerks in government offices—some jobs temporary until war was over o White-collar government jobs, retail sales, and nursing became permeant Northern women took part in organizations that o Gathered money and medical supplies for soldiers o Sent books, clothing, and food to freedmen o U.S. Sanitary Commission emerged as centralized national relief agency to coordinate donations o Sanitary Fairs: Fund-raising bazaars led by women on behalf of Civil War soldiers. The fairs offered items such as uniforms and banners, as well as other emblems of war Act of volunteering for war effort brought women into public sphere and gave a taste of independence o Wartime mobilization brought many postwar women’s rights leaders  Clara Barton  Organized supply lines and nursed wounded soldiers in northern Virginia  Became women’s suffrage advocate  President of American National Red Cross—humane treatment of battlefield casualties The Divided North   Lincoln’s policies divided the North o Republicans labeled those who opposed the war “copperheads” (afer poisonous snake that strikes without waring) o Dissatisfaction was strongest among large southern-born population of states like Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois and working-class Catholic immigrants in eastern cities Social tensions heightened o Growing power of federal government challenged traditional notions of local autonomy o Unions draf law (allowing one to substitute or pay their way out of the draf) was outrageous  Workers resented manufacturers and financers who got rich during war while their real incomes were impacted due to inflation o Racist reaction in North  Democratic party torn between war supporter and those who favored emancipation and those who favored immediate peace 7 The Confederate Nation How did the war effort affect the society and economy of the Confederacy? Leadership and Government    Jefferson Davis (Confederate “President”) lacked Lincoln’s political flexibility and ability to communicate the war’s meaning to the ordinary citizen Confederation nation became far more centralized than Old South had been. The government: o Raised armies from scratch o Took control of southern railroads o Built manufacturing plants o BUT FAILED at finding way to use major economic resource—cotton “King Cotton diplomacy”: An attempt during the Civil War in the South to encourage British intervention by banning cotton exports o Proved ineffective o Other nations now recognized their overdependence on southern cotton and moved to produce their own  Resumption of American cotton production led to worldwide crisis of overproduction and drove down prices—impoverished farmers around the world The Inner Civil War  Like Union, Confederacy allowed individuals to provide a substitute for draf o “Twenty Negro” Provision: allowed one draf exemption for every 20 slaves on a plantation  Convinced yeoman that struggle for southern independence had become “rich man’s war and poor man’s fight” Economic Problems    As Union occupied more southern land o Farms, plantations, businesses, and railroads lef in ruins o Slave production declined and shortages occurred—especially in salt, corn, and meat o Non-slaveholders became convinced they were sacrificing more than slaverholders Like Union, Confederacy borrowed heavily to finance war o Unwilling to levy heavy taxes (planters would have to pay) o Relied on paper money—issues $1.5 billion o “Impressment”: authorization of military officers to seize farm goods to supply army—paid for with worthless money  Food riots broke out—women plundered army’s food supplies 1864, organized peace movements appeared + secret pro-Union societies promoting disaffection Women and the Confederacy    Huge burdens on southern white women o Lef to manage business affairs + discipline slaves o Mobilized to support soldiers, ran commercial establishments, worked in arms factories o “Government girls” staffed clerkship in new Confederate bureaucracy Women were unable to feed families o Flooded Confederate authorities with petitions seeking assistance Women began to realize that the sacrifices they had to make were not worth it o Letters to husbands hurt soldier morale and encouraged desertion from army 8 Black Soldiers for the Confederacy   Growing shortage of white manpower led South to arm black soldiers o March 1865, Robert E. Lee endorsed plan and Confederate Congress authorized plan o War ended before recruitment actually occurred Many blacks served military as laborers Turning Points What were the military and political turning points of the war? Gettysburg and Vicksburg    “Fighting Joe” Hooker (new Union commander in East) brought Army of the Potomac into central VA to confront Lee o Lee repelled Hooker’s attack at Chancellorsville (but still lost ablest lieutenant “Stonewall” Jackson) Battle of Gettysburg: Battle fought in southern Pennsylvania, July 1-3, 1863; the Confederate defeat and the simultaneous loss at Vicksburg marked the military turning point of the Civil War o Remains largest battle ever fought on North America o July 3, Confederate forces under Major General George E. Pickett’s crack division marched toward Union forces on open field  Most never met Union lines  This was Lee’s biggest blunder  Army retreated to VA—never went on Northern soil again Battle of Vicksburg: The fall of Vicksburg, Mississippi, to General Ulysses S. Grant’s army on July 4, 1863, afer 2 months of siege; a turning point in the war because it gave the Union control of the Mississippi River o Late 1862, Grant moved into Mississippi toward Vicksburg o Confederacy commanded Mississippi River with miles of trenches  Direct attacks failed, Grant launched siege o July 4, 1863, Vicksburg surrendered  Entire Mississippi Valley now in Union hands 1864        1864, Grant brought east to take command of Union forces o Began a war of attrition—willing to accept high number of casualties because he could afford the losses while the south could not o To use his manpower to his advantage, he dedicated to fight continuously  South did not have time to concentrate their men or retreat to safety Many 1864, Army of Potomac crosses Rapidan River to battle Lee’s forces in Virginia Grant became only Union general to maintain initiative against Lee Grant tried to take control of railroad link to Richmond but Lee got to Petersburg first General William T. Sherman moved to Georgia from Tennessee and captured main railroad center Election of 1864 o Radical Republicans nominated John C. Fremont—called for constitutional amendment to abolish slavery, federal protection of the freedman’s rights, and confiscation of the land of leading Confederates o Democrats nominated George B. McClellan—called for immediate cease fire and peace conference Lincoln won reelection which ensured war would continue until Union won 9 Rehearsals for Reconstruction and the End of the War What were the most important wartime “rehearsals for Reconstruction”? The Sea Islands Experiment  Sea Islands experiment: The 1861 pre-Reconstruction social experiment that involved converting slave plantations into places where former slaves could work for wages or own land. Former slaves also received education and success to improved shelter o 1861—the Union navy occupied Sea Islands (white plantation owners had fled)  Soon followed by other northerners—army officers, Treasury agents, prospective investors in cotton land, “Gideon’s Band” (included black and white reformers and teachers committed to uplifing freed slaves) o Northerners believed transition from slave to free labor = enabling blacks to work for wages in more humane conditions o When island land was put up for sale, most was bought by white northerners  Wanted to show superiority of free labor  Also wanted to make a profit o New question arose: Should land ownership accompany black freedom? Wartime Reconstruction in the West     Louisiana and Mississippi Valley Afer capture of Vicksburg, Union army established regulations for plantation labor o Emancipated slaves must sign labor contract with plantation owners (who took an oath of loyalty) o Laborers paid wages + provided education o Physical punishment was prohibited o Families safe from disruption by sale Neither side was satisfied with new labor system o Blacks resented  Having to continue work for whites  Being forced to sign labor contracts o Planters complained  Workers were insubordinate Different visions of freedom at David Bend, Mississippi (site of Jefferson Davis’ cotton plantations) o Emancipated slaves saw land divided among themselves o System of government established that allowed them to elect their own judges and sheriffs The Politics of Wartime Reconstruction    Future political status of blacks became dividing line in public debates Ten-Percent Plan of Reconstruction: President Lincoln’s proposal for reconstruction, issued in 1863, in which southern states would rejoin the Union if 10% of the 1860 electorate signed loyalty pledges, accepted emancipation, and had received presidential pardons o Hoped to establish functioning civilian government in Union-occupied Louisiana o Offered amnesty (official pardon of political crimes) and full restoration of rights  Including property—except for slaves o When 10% of the voters in 1860 election had taken oath, they could elect new state government  But required to abolish slavery o Did not mention blacks in shaping post-slavery order Freed New Orleans blacks took opportunity of Union occupation o Pressed for equality before the law and role in government 10 Complained of not being included in Lincoln’s Reconstruction plan  Sympathetic Radical Republicans in Congress heard this Wade-Davis Bill: Radical Republics’ 1864 plan for reconstruction that required loyalty oaths, abolition of slavery, repudiation of war debts, and denial of political rights to high-ranking Confederate officials; President Lincoln refused to sign the bill o Required majority (not 10%) of male white southerners to pledge loyalty to Union o Guaranteed blacks equality before the law—BUT not right to vote o Bill PASSED Congress o Bill DIED when Lincoln refused to sign it o  Victory at Last   Thirteenth Amendment: Constitutional amendment adopted in 1865 that irrevocably abolished slavery throughout the United States o January 31, 1865—approved by Congress o This introduced the word “Slavery” to the Constitution for the 1st time April 1865 brought some of the most momentous events in American history o April 2—Grant finally broke through Lee’s lines at Petersburg  Forcing the Army of Northern Virginia to abandon the city (leaving Richmond defenseless) o April 4—Lincoln walked around streets of Richmond with only a dozen sailors (no other protection)  Former slaves fell to their Lincoln’s knees—Lincoln urged them to remain standing o Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia: Site of the surrender of Confederate general Robert E. Lee to Union general Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, marking the end of the Civil War o April 11—In Lincoln’s last speech before assassination, he called for limited black suffrage in South The War and the World  1877, afer retiring as President, Ulysses S. Grant and wife traveled the world where he was celebrated as a hero The War in American History   Civil War laid the foundation for modern America o Guaranteed a permeant Union o Shif power from South to North—more specifically, southern planters to northern capitalists o Increased the power of the federal government o Accelerated modernization of northern economy o Post war agenda: defining and protecting African-Americans Both sides lost some things they had gone to war to defend: o South: slavery  North: fast tracked the transformation of Lincoln’s America from a world of free labor, small shops, and independent farms into an industrial giant 11