Fundamental Human Communication Final Guide

GCOM Final Exam Study Guide Learning Objective 1 Explain the fundamental processes that significantly influence communication (25 questions) A. (6 questions) Recognize the major elements of the communication process. B. (1 questions) Recognize the role of communication, identify the function and/or purpose. C. (14 questions) Recognize the role of communication in building and maintaining relationships with others. D. (4 questions) Recognize the role of communication in building and maintaining cultures and society. Learning Objective 2 Construct messages consistent with the diversity of communication purpose, audience, context, and ethics (25 questions) A. (12 questions) Choose a message according to the purpose, audience, and context. B. (7 questions) Design an effective presentation appropriate for a communication context, audience, or purpose. C. (6 questions) Deliver an effective presentation appropriate for a communication context, audience, or purpose. Learning Objective 3 Respond to messages consistent with the diversity of communication purpose, audience, context, and ethics. (25 questions) A. (7 questions) Comprehend messages. B. (10 questions) Analyze messages. C. (8 questions) Respond to messages. Learning Objective 4 Utilize digital literacy skills expected of ethical communicators (25 items) A. (2 questions) Recognize the need for information appropriate for a communication context, audience, or purpose. B. (5 questions) Locate information appropriate for a communication context, audience, or purpose. C. (12 questions) Evaluate information sources appropriate for a communication context, audience, or purpose. D. (6 questions) Ethically utilize texts, images and media. Communication Fundamentals Chapter 1: Competent Communication 1. What are the most common myths about communication? Communication is a Cure-All: skillful communication may ease the pain may heal the wounds of a relationship, but some problems between individuals are unsolvable Communication Is Just Common Sense: This is known as the hindsight effect; the fact that everyone knows everything there is to know about communication. Communication Quantity Equals Quality: Relentless criticism is more communication, but is hardly better communication ● Cure all ● Common sense ● Quantity = quality 2. Explain the differences between the three models of communication: linear, interactive, and transactional. Linear: a sender who sends a message through a channel to a receiver in an atmosphere of noise. 1 way communication. Interactive: Includes feedback. The addition of feedback clearly indicates that communication is not a one-way but a two-way process. Participants act as both senders and receivers of messages. Transactional: Assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in a transaction. We are both senders and receivers simultaneously. 3. Define the basic communication elements contained in the communication models (channel, sender, receiver, message, encode, decode, context, fields of experience, noise, and feedback). Channel: Medium through which a message travels, such as oral or written Sender: the initiator and encoder of messages Receiver: the decoder of messages Message: stimulus that produces meaning Encode: convert into a particular form (creating message) Decode: convert into intelligible language (detecting message) Context: the environment in which communication occurs Fields of Experience: cultural background, ethnicity, geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of a lifetime that influences messages Noise: any interference with effective transmission and receptive of a message ● Physical Noise: external environment distractions (startling sounds, poorly heated rooms) ● Physiological Noise: biological influences (sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterflies in the stomach) ● Psychological Noise: preconceptions, biases, and assumptions that interfere with effective message transmission and reception (prejudices) ● Semantic Noise: confusing or distracting word choice that interferes with accurate message transmission and reception Feedback: the receiver’s verbal and nonverbal responses to a message 4. Explain the two aspects of every message: Content and relationship. Content: what is actually said and done Relationship: how that message defines or redefines the association between individuals 5. How do constructive versus destructive communication climates influence relationships? Constructive Communication: (1) a pattern of openness, or a willingness to communicate (2) a pattern of supportiveness, or a confirmation of the worth and value of others and willingness to help others be successful Destructive Communication: composed of 2 general elements: pattern of closedness and a pattern of defensiveness 6. Define communication competence and describe the skills needed to be an effective and appropriate communicator. Communication Competence: engaging in communication that is perceived to be both effective and appropriate in a given context. The skills needed to be effective are being “We first, not me first,” being a proficient speaker (confidence in what they are saying), following rules, and determining the context of the speech. 7. Explain the role of rules in communication contexts. A rule is prescription that indicates what behavior is obligated, prohibited, or preferred in a given context. Rules also create expectations regarding appropriate behavior. ● Explicit Rules: directly stated (rules contain text content, photos, and sometimes the # of characters allowed) ● Implicit Rules: indirectly indicated, implied, (you don’t have to be directly told to do and what not to do) 8. List the characteristics of an ethical communicator. Respect, Honesty, Fairness, Choice, and Responsibility Chapter 2: Perception of Self and Others 9. Explain the three elements of the perceptual process (selecting, organizing, and interpreting). Selecting: Selecting which stimuli to notice begins the perceptual process. Your selection is determined by sensory limitations and selective attention. Organizing: We must organize selected stimuli to create meaning. 3 types of schemas to organize stimuli are prototypes, stereotypes, and scripts. Interpreting: We try to make sense of stimuli which we organized. We make sense of our own behaviors and transactions with others by assigning a cause to a behavior. 10. What is a perceptual schema (prototype, stereotype, and script)? Prototype: most representative or “best” example of something (“boss from hell,” “great movie,” “perfect date,” or “great communicator”) Stereotype: A generalization about a group or category of people. Script: A predictable sequence of events that indicates what we are expected to do in a given situation. 11. Define self-concept and describe how it is formed (reflected appraisal, significant others, and society). Self Concept: The sum total of everything that encompasses the self-referential term “me.” Reflected Appraisal: Refers to messages you receive from others that assess your self concept; Ex- All of Alec’s friends call him fat, so it is challenging for him to feel good about himself. Social Comparison: Evaluating yourself by comparing yourself to other people. 12. What are some of the influences on perception (gender, culture, past experiences, mood, and context)? Gender: 13. What is self-disclosure? Self Disclosure: The process of purposely revealing personal information about yourself that is significant and that others would not know unless you told them; ExampleAlec voluntarily reveals his masturbation patterns to his friends. 14. How do depth and breadth of self-disclosure influence the building of relationships? Breadth: Refers to the range of subjects (topics) discussed. Depth: Refers to how personal you become when discussing a particular subject. Intimate relationships have both whereas casual relationships have a little of either. 15. What are the rules for constructively and appropriately self-disclosing and responding to self-disclosure? Trust: When you self disclose to another person, you risk being hurt or damaged by that person Reciprocity: mutual, self disclosure demonstrates that trust and risk taking are shared Cultural Appropriateness: Appropriate self-disclosure in one culture may not be appropriate in another Situational Appropriateness: Identify if it is a private setting or a public setting Incremental Disclosure: Overzealous self disclosure in which you blurt out your entire life 16. Why is reciprocal sharing important? Communication is a two-way interaction, by having only one party disclose it may lead you to feeling vulnerable and the other person protected. 17. Explain what a self-serving bias is and how it influences our interactions (personal traits, situations). Self-Serving Bias: The tendency to attribute successful behavior to ourselves but to assign external circumstances to our unsuccessful behavior (Taking credit when doing well, blaming others when doing wrong) 18. Explain how our perceptions of others can influence our communication with them (first impressions, primacy effect, negativity bias, attribution error, stereotyping, and self-fulfilling prophecy). First Impression: The judgments you make about someone when you first observe/meet someone. Can be biased and accurate depending. There are many factors such as dress, speech, and overall appearance that influence first-impressions. Primacy Effect: tendency to be more influenced by initial information about a person rather than information gained later. Negativity Bias: more influenced on the negative aspects rather than positive. Negativity Bias: strong tendency to be influenced more heavily by negative than by positive information Attribution error: overemphasizing personal traits and underemphasized situations as causes of other people's behavior. (Example: A wife finds her husband lazy for not picking up his clothes however the husband says he was too tired after work) Our tendency is to find fault with others for bad behavior but find excuses for our own failings. Stereotyping: it is natural and unavoidable. It permits rapid judgements when instant decisions are required, but it can also lead to serious mistakes Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: They make inaccurate stereotypes appear valid. 19. Describe the three dimensions related to communicating “empathy.” Perspective, Emotional, and Compassionate Perspective taking: You try to see as others see, to perceive as they perceive. You try on the viewpoint of another to gain understanding of his or her perspective Emotional Understanding: You participate in the feelings of others (experiencing joy, anxiety, frustration, irritation) Concern for others: You care what happens to others. When you view the behavior of others from their perspective, try to feel as they might feel given a specific situation Chapter 3: Culture and Gender 20. Define what culture is. Culture: learned set of enduring values, beliefs, and practices that are shared by an identifiable, large group of people with a common history 21. Explain how culture influences communication. Some cultures are different beliefs than others and that affects how they communicate with others. For instance, tipping at restaurants is not accepted in some asian cultures and can come across as a disrespectful action. 22. Define ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, and multiculturalism. Ethnocentrism: Seeing our own culture as the center of the universe and other cultures as insignificant or even inferior. Cultural Relativism: the view that cultures are merely different, not deficient, and that each culture’s norms and practices should be assessed only from the perspective of the culture itself, not based on standards embraced by another culture Multiculturalism: Social-intellectual movement that promotes the value of diversity as a core principle and insists that all cultural groups be treated with respect and as equals 23. Explain the major differences between low-context and high-context communication styles. Low-Context Communication: Verbally precise, direct, assertive, self-enhancing, and explicit method of communication usually found in individualist cultures High-Context Communication: Indirect verbal expression; significant information is derived from contextual cues, such as relationships, situations, setting, and time; typically found in collectivist cultures 24. Explain the major differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Individualist Cultures: A culture that has a “me” consciousness; individuals see themselves as loosely linked to each other and largely independent of group identification Collectivist Cultures: A culture that has a “we” consciousness; individuals see themselves as being closely linked to one or more groups and are primarily motivated by the norms and duties imposed by these groups 25. Explain the major differences between low-power distance and high power-distance cultures. Low-Power Distance: Cultures whose people value relatively equal power sharing and discourage attention to status differences and ranking in society (Individualist) High-Power Distance: Cultures with a relatively strong emphasis on maintaining power differences (Collectivist) 26. Explain the major differences between feminine and masculine cultures. Feminine Culture: A culture that exhibits stereotypical feminine traits, such as affection, nurturance, sensitivity, compassion, and emotional expressiveness Masculine Culture: A culture that exhibits stereotypical masculine traits, such as male dominance, ambitiousness, assertiveness, competitiveness, and drive for achievement 27. How does culture influence nonverbal communication? Some nonverbal forms can have different meanings in different cultures. Some nonverbal methods that Americans use to mean one thing can mean almost the complete opposite in another culture Chapter 4: Language 28. Explain the four elements common to all languages (structure, productivity, displacement, and self-reflexiveness). Structure - phonemes: the individual sounds that compose a specific spoken language (sounds that correspond to vowels)///morphemes: the smallest unit of meaning in a language (how words are constructed, words, sentences)///syntax: rules that govern appropriate combinations of words into phrases and sentences///semantics: set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences Productivity: invent words, change the meaning of older word Displacement: use language to talk about things that are not here (imaginary world, past and future, things NOT in the moment) Self-reflexiveness: use of language to talk about language, how you can improve conversation 29. Explain the abstracting process (sense experience, description, inference, and judgment). Sense experience: pay attention to something Description: verbal reports that sketch what you perceive from your senses Interference: conclusions about the unknown based on the known Judgement: selective evaluations of objects, events, or ideas 30. Explain the two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and their relationship to culture. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The claim that we are either prisoners of our native language, unable to think certain ways (linguistic determinism), or that our language powerfully influences but does not imprison our thinking and perceptions (linguistic relativity). Linguistic Relativity: claim that our native language powerfully influences but does not imprison perception and thinking; more likely to see people commit Linguistic Determinism: claim that we are prisoners of our native language; unable to think and perceive in certain ways due to grammatical structure and lexicon of language; direct cause, will not commit 31. Explain how connotative meaning differs from denotative meaning. Connotative: personal subjective meaning Denotative: shared eaning, actual definition 32. What is the difference between a fact and an inference? Fact: truth with evidence to back it up Inference: conclusion of unknown based on known info 33. How might the use of slang, jargon, and euphemisms influence the understanding of a communication message? Jargon: specialized for profession, trade or group (can cause problems with those who don't understand) Euphemism: Word choices that numb or camouflage unpleasant or offensive realities Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication 34. Explain how nonverbal channels of communication differ from verbal channels. Verbal Communication is single-channeled, but non-verbal communication is multi channeled. For example, one can express anger by verbally saying, “I hate you.” The same anger can be expressed nonverbally through multiple channels (channel rich): shaking a fist, extending a middle finger, glaring, or screaming. 35. Explain how nonverbal communication functions in relationship with verbal communication (repetition, substitution, regulation, contradiction, accentuation). Repetition: We profess verbal messages and then express nonverbal cues to repeat the verbal message. For example, saying “yes” and nodding our heads Substitution: Nonverbal cues substitute for verbal messages. For example, a yawn can substitute for the verbal “I’m bored” or “I’m tired.” Regulation: Conversation is regulated by nonverbal cues. Turn taking is signaled by long pauses at the end of sentences and eye contact in the direction of the person expected to speak next, especially if the conversation is in a group. Contradiction: Sometimes we contradict verbal messages with nonverbal cues. These are known as mixed messages- inconsistencies between verbal and nonverbal messages. For example, saying, “I love you” while your eyes cast downward and flat vocal tone, doesn’t exactly inspire belief Accentuation: Accentuating enhances the power and seriousness of verbal messages. An example of this is when we put vocal emphasis, such as “Please don’t touch that!” A nonverbal example can be when one pounds their fist on a table as you express your anger. 36. Explain the major types of nonverbal communication (kinesics, paralanguage, territoriality, proxemics, and haptics). Kinesics: the study of both facial communication and gestures Paralanguage: vocal cues. 3 classifications: ● Vocal Characterizers: laughing, yelling, crying, whining, and yawning ● Vocal Qualifiers: volume, tone, pitch, resonance, rhythm, and rate ● Vocal Segregates: “uh-huh,” “uh,” “mm-hmm,” “ooh,” and “shh” Territoriality: a predisposition to defend a fixed geographic area, or territory, as one’s exclusive domain Proxemics: the study of the influence of distance and territoriality on human communication Haptics: the study of touch Chapter 6: Listening to Others 37. Define listening by its basic elements (comprehending, retaining, and responding) Comprehending: shared meaning between or among parties in a transaction Retaining: memory, remembering information Responding: provide verbal or nonverbal feedback to person you're listening to 38. Define the three types of listening (informational, critical and empathic) Informational Listening: attempts to comprehend the message of speaker Empathetic Listening: requires listeners to take the perspective of the other person and to listen for what that person needs or wants Critical Listening: evaluating the merits of caims as they are heard 39. Explain the problems that can interfere with competent informational listening (conversational narcissism, competitive interrupting, glazing over, pseudo-listening, and ambushing). Conversational Narcissism: tendency of listeners to turn the topics of ordinary conversations to themselves without showing sustained interests in others' topics. Competitive Interrupting: occurs when we dominate the conversation by seizing the floor from others who are speaking Glazing Over:occurs when listeners' attention wanders and daydreaming occurs Pseudo-listening: pretending to listen Ambushing: occurs when we listen for weaknesses and ignore strengths of a speaker's message 40. Explain the problems that can interfere with competent critical listening (skepticism, true belief, and cynicism). Skepticism: process of listening to claims, evaluation evidence, and reasoning supporting those claims and drawing conclusions based on probabilities; always challenging beliefs and asking or evidence True belief: willingness to accept claims without solid reasoning or valid evidence and to hold these beliefs tenaciously even if contradictory evidence disputes them Cynicism: nay-saying, fault finding and ridiculing the beliefs and values of others 41. Describe the listening response styles associated with empathic listening and nonempathic listening. Evaluate Response: makes judgements about a person's conduct Interpreting Response - express what we think is underlying meaning of the situation. Advising Response - tell people how they should act Content-Only Response: comprehends literal meaning of message but doesn't recognize feelings Probing Response: seeks more info by asking questions Supporting Response: express core, concern, interest, ect. in time of stress or hurt Understanding Response: paraphrasing message to check accuracy of perceptions Public Speaking Chapter 12: Preparing Speeches 42. What are the components of doing an audience analysis, and how is a speech adapted based on those components (demographics, values, beliefs, & attitudes)? Demographics: characteristics such as age, gender, culture and ethnicity. Values: the most deeply felt, generally shared view of what is deemed good. Beliefs: what a person thinks is true or probable. Attitudes: learned predispositions to respond favorably or unfavorably toward some attitude object. 43. How are the preparation and presentation of a speech influenced by audience analysis? By identifying what kind of audience you are presenting in front of: captive, committed, contrary, concerned, or casual 44. Define the general purpose, specific purpose, and central idea in public speaking. General purpose: to inform, persuade-basic goal Specific purpose: what you will be talking about Central idea: what you want the audience to take away from your speech 45. What should be considered when choosing a topic (speaker, subject, occasion, and audience)? Speaker: find a topic that is suitable for YOU. You need a topic that interests you so you can communicate that to your audience. Audience: find a topic that is appropriate for your audience. (Ex. you wouldn't talk about guns/sex for a presentation in front of kindergarteners) Occasion: When you're speaking at a particular event, the topic must be appropriate for the occasion. For example, if you are at a graduation ceremony, your topic would include something about the future, or skills for success, or ending a childhood chapter. You wouldn't give a speech about bombs at a graduation ceremony. 46. How does one avoid plagiarism? Citing your sources 47. What are the main types of supporting materials used in speeches? Examples: clarify your point and help people understand better. Statistics: allow provide magnitudes and allow for comparison. Testimony: of authorities helps support an argument from a credible source 48. What are the criteria for evaluating supporting material? Credibility: is the evidence reliable (consistency) and valid (accuracy)? Relevancy: it must relate directly to those claims, or the claims are unwarranted Sufficiency: the person who makes the claim has the burden to prove the claim. You must have enough evidence to and reasoning to support a claim 49. What are the components of a competent presentation body? The body presentation should have full sentences that create a sense of completeness and should be balanced. The main points should be equally discussed. All of the main points should also have sub-points further explaining the main point with examples. 50. Identify the organizational pattern used in speeches (topical, spatial, causal, chronological, problem-solution, and Monroe’s Motivated Sequence). Topical Patterns: arrange information according to types, classifications, or parts of a whole. Chronological Patterns: follow a specific sequence of events. Spatial Patterns: provide information based on a location. It requires a visualization of where things are spatially in order to explain the position. Casual Patterns: are causes-effects patterns that explain why something happens and discusses the consequences. Problem-Solution Patterns: explore the nature of a problem and gives solutions. Monroe's motivated sequence has 5 steps: 1. Attention: creating interest 2. Need: present a problem to be solved and relate to the audience 3. Satisfaction: Provide a solution to problem that will satisfy the audience 4. Visualization: Create a picture for what would happen if the plan worked 5. Action: Make the audience involved and committed Chapter 13: Presenting Speeches 51. What are some guidelines for managing speech anxiety? Topic you know, positive imaging, practice 52. What are the critical elements of a competent speech introduction? The four critical elements of a competent speech introduction are: gain attention, make a clear purpose statement, establish your topic’s significance, and preview your main points 53. How does a speaker create credibility and identification in an introduction? Creating credibility and identification in the introduction can be done by stating some general facts about your main topic that are broad. You then have to identify your audience and include credible sources and use them to relate to the audience. 54. What are the critical elements of a competent speech conclusion? Three critical elements of a competent speech conclusion are summarizing main points, referring to the introduction, and making a memorable finish. 55. How does the oral style of communication differ from a written style? (1) When we speak, we usually use simpler sentences thann when we write (2) Oral style is highly interactive, written style is not (3) Oral style is usually less formal than writing style 56. What impact do various delivery considerations have on an audience (eye contact, vocal variety, verbal fluency, poise, dynamism)? Eye Contact: direct, penetrating eye contact can be riveting. When you don’t look directly at audience, listeners’ minds can easily wander Vocal Variety: It creates interest and helps a speaker to have more influence over the audience Verbal Fluency: speaking clearly allows for your audience to easily interpret what your message is to them Poise: being relaxed and handling pressure well is good in a speech because it allows the presenter to speak what he wants Dynamism: the enthusiasm and energy exhibited by a speaker 57. Explain the differences between the major delivery styles (manuscript, memorized, extemporaneous, and impromptu). Manuscript: sounds like the presenter is reading an essay to the audience and is very formal Memorized: A few key lines in a lengthy speech may benefit from memorization. These are often very brief and short Extemporaneous: is delivered from a prepared outline or notes Impromptu: delivered without preparation, or so it seems. Chapter 14: Informative Speaking 58. What distinguishes informative speaking from persuasive speaking? Informative: involves teaching your audience something new. Persuasive: involves convincing your listeners to change their viewpoint. 59. What are signposts and transitions, and how are they used in constructing a presentation? Signposts: organizational markers that indicate the structure of a speech and notify listeners that a particular point is about to be addressed. Transitions: connect what is said with what will be said. 60. Describe the characteristics of an appropriate or effective oral citation. Author, title, and year 61. What are the types of visual aids that can be used during a speech? Objects, models, graphs, tables, drawings, pictures, videos, handouts, posters, power points, etc 62. What are guidelines for the competent usage of visual aids? Keeps aids simple, make them visible and neat. Attractive and accurate. Keep them out of sight when they aren't in use. Chapter 15: Persuasive Speaking 63. Define persuasion. A communication process of converting, modifying, or maintaining the attitudes, beliefs, and/or behavior of others 64. What are the primary dimensions of credibility (competence trustworthiness, dynamism, and composure)? Competence trustworthiness: how truthful or honest an audience perceives a speaker to be Dynamism: enthusiasm and energy exhibited by a speaker Composure: a speaker’s emotional stability, confidence, and degree of control over himself or herself when under stress 65. Identify and discuss how the three Aristotelian modes of proof (ethos, logos, and pathos) are used in persuasive speeches. Ethos: Aristotle’s version of credibility characterized by “good sense, good moral character, and good will” Logos: Aristotle’s conception of building arguments based on logic and evidence Pathos: Aristotle’s conception of emotional appeals used for persuasion 66. Identify and discuss how propositions of fact, value, and policy are used in persuasive speeches. Proposition of Fact: the primary overriding claim in a persuasive speech that alleges a truth Proposition of Value: primary overriding claim in a persuasive speech that calls for a judgement, assessing the worth or merit of an idea, object, or practice Proposition of Policy: primary overriding claim in a persuasive speech that calls for a significant change from how problems are currently handled