Social Inequalities - Class

Social Inequalities ANTH 2301 Class A collection of individuals with similar socioeconomic standing and access to power is referred to as a class. Status in a class-based society is determined by one's level of income and closeness to the authority that comes with it. In terms of economics, class structures are often linked to the capitalist system of production. When discussing class structures, people in the US frequently refer to the middle class. The economic system of production known as capitalism, which is predicated on markets, land and resource ownership, and wage labour, has given rise to classes that are rooted in the recognition that social hierarchy in a country is determined by earned wealth or position. In capitalist countries, a person's social standing is closely tied to the quantity of money they have amassed or the position they have held in their profession. Because of the prevailing belief that a person's value in society is determined by their relationship to capital, class-based systems frequently highlight socioeconomic inequities. For example, those who work in fast food are frequently considered as undeserving of a livable salary, but Bill Gates is respected for his wealth. The notion of meritocracy is linked to this system of inequality, particularly in the US, where people at the top of the class hierarchy are seen to have worked the hardest or are most deserving of high-level jobs, while those at the bottom are thought to be individually responsible for their lack of money. The idea of social mobility—the capacity for an individual to rise into higher and hence more powerful classes just by working hard—is a component of capitalism. The "American Dream," or the notion that impoverished Americans may rise to a better class, is based on social mobility. But anthropologist Katherine S. Newman has studied downward social mobility—that is, the continuous loss of capital and subsequent loss of social standing—for many years. According to Newman (1999), many middle-class people struggled to stay in their class throughout the later decades of the 20th century as a result of emigration, divorce, corporate downsizing, and technical improvement (also see Gans 2009). In addition, millions of people witnessed a decline in social mobility as a result of the COVID19 epidemic and the 2008 recession. The term "collar" is also used in the United States in addition to class. Blue-collar employment are seen to be less skilled, more manual laborintensive, and lower earning, whereas white-collar positions are thought to need more education, entail less manual labour, and pay more. Nonetheless, Forbes magazine discovered that although many "blue collar" jobs—like those in plumbing and electrical work— pay more than many "white collar" jobs—like those in entry- or midlevel finance—they are viewed as less important in the US social hierarchy. If the difference between white-collar and blue-collar employment isn't only determined by salary, then what makes them different? According to German social scientist Max Weber, societal inequality and interpersonal conflicts in capitalist cultures were mostly caused by factors more than just two classes. Weber contends that there are several, overlapping systems from which to acquire power in his influential essay "The Distribution of Power with the Community: Classes, Stände, Parties" (2010), which was first published in German in 1921. He also connects social stratification to three factors: political party affiliation, socioeconomic status, and prestige. In capitalist and class systems, capital—that is, wealth in the form of cash or other assets—is frequently the source of power. Although it is not the sole type of capital, economic capital is monetary. Pierre Bourdieu, a French sociologist, made a distinction between four types of capital: symbolic, cultural, social, and economic. According to Bourdieu, social capital refers to the intangible assets—like common contacts, cultural knowledge, or life experiences—that individuals utilise to elevate their social standing. Power may also be determined by one's social capital. The knowledge, abilities, and credentials that individuals gain to establish cultural authority are referred to as cultural capital; in an institutionalised context, this takes the shape of educational accomplishment. Economic, social, and cultural capital are linked to symbolic capital, which refers to the assets at a person's disposal due to honour, status, or recognition. Successful sportsmen, for example, frequently possess symbolic capital, which may be used to boost social and economic capital through corporate endorsements and other avenues. Athletes may also lose their contracts and sponsorships as a result of a scandal or issue surrounding them, which damages their social and economic capital in addition to their symbolic capital. Networking inside elite schools is a fantastic illustration of how people use social capital in the United States. Sociologist Lauren Rivera uses participant observation in her book Pedigree: How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs (2016) to illustrate how elite investment banks, consulting firms, and law firms determine who gets hired and who doesn't. She bases this on research on social and cultural capital in the American class system. Interviewers from prestigious companies frequently say something like "not a good fit" when determining not to hire someone, to avoid having to answer to charges of discriminatory intent. Riviera comes to the conclusion that the only way for an applicant to get employed by such a company if they are not from a top-tier school is if someone else in their social capital network can attest to their skills. Symbolic violence occurs when those with more power use it against those with less in an attempt to influence their behaviour. One kind of non-physical violence that takes the form of power imbalances between social classes (such as upper class and lower class) is known as symbolic violence. According to Bourdieu, ideologies that normalise and legitimise the existing quo are strengthened by symbolic violence. Symbolic violence frequently serves to perpetuate societal injustices. The terminology that is used to describe other groups may be the clearest example of this. Symbolic violence has been employed linguistically by English speakers to dehumanise migrants over the lengthy history of migrations towards the US-Mexico border, isolating them from a shared human identity. Across cultures, terms like "illegals," "illegal aliens," and "undocumented workers" are used to define families and people based on a single factor. Particularly, linguistic insults are linked to symbolic violence. It can be easier for society to oppress people and view them as unworthy of compassion and respect when they are shown in such a harsh and basic way. Racial analysis is another way to examine capitalism and class structures. Racial capitalism is the process through which the essential elements of capitalism (credit/debit, production/surplus, capitalist/worker, developed/underdeveloped, etc.) become articulated through current relations of racial inequalities. It was first popularised by political science and Black studies scholar Cedric J. Robinson in Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (1983). According to Robinson's theory, racism existed in Western mediaeval culture at the time capitalism emerged, not because of a plot to split workers or legitimise slavery. Rather, racism was already pervasive in these societies. Colonialism and the slave trade are prime examples of racial capitalism. Due to the fact that black lives are continually endangered and undervalued by a political arithmetic and racial calculus that were established centuries ago, scholar Saidiya Hartman claims that slavery "persists as an issue in the political life of black America." The term "the afterlife of slavery" (Hartman, 2007:6) refers to this as "skewed life chances, limited access to health and education, premature death, incarceration, and impoverishment." A system of capitalism that was racist and still exploits people today is slavery. Class systems highlight social inequality since certain people need to oppress and take advantage of other groups in order to be wealthy and powerful. Rather than admitting that the framework of capitalism, which requires a working class, creates inequality, capitalism and class societies are frequently defended by the notions that those in power earned it and that those without it have personal moral faults.