Modes of Subsistence

Work, Life, and Value: Economic Anthropology ANTH 2301 Modes of Subsistence "Mode of subsistence" is the term used by anthropologists to characterise the range of ways in which individuals engage with their surroundings in order to ensure their livelihoods. This idea includes the plans and techniques that communities use to create, trade, and use basic needs including clothes, food, housing, and medical care. Four main forms of sustenance have evolved throughout the course of human history: plant cultivation, pastoralism, industrialism/post-industrialism, and gathering-hunting. All three modes provide different ways to harvest resources from the environment and use different labour practices and technology to turn those resources into products that may be used. Not only do these means of subsistence provide fundamental demands for existence, but they also have a significant impact on how society is organised, roles and duties are defined, commerce and the flow of products are facilitated, and certain cultural values and ideals are instilled. Foraging, also known as gathering-hunting, is thought to be the first human means of subsistence. In order to gather edible plants, hunt animals, and fish, foragers rely on the wild plants and animals that are present in their surroundings. They do this by using their wide knowledge of flora and wildlife. This mode fosters a close relationship with nature by requiring a thorough awareness of seasonal cycles and animal behaviour. Small, agrarian, and egalitarian in nature, foraging communities are based on kinship and the sharing of resources among the community. Though these tasks can be variable, the division of labour is normally based on age and gender, with women collecting and males hunting. The San people of Southern Africa are an anthropological example of a gathering-hunting civilization; they have adapted to the harsh Kalahari Desert climate by developing a deep understanding of the surrounding ecosystems. Another ancient way of life was pastoralism, which entailed domesticating and herding animals including camels, sheep, goats, and cattle. The meat, milk, blood, skins, and wool produced by their animals provide the pastoralists with food. This kind of subsistence is frequently used in locations that are not suited for agriculture, such as highlands, tundras, and dry or semi-arid regions. Typically, pastoral communities are semi-nomadic or nomadic, constantly shifting their herds in pursuit of new water sources and grazing areas. Pastoral communities frequently have clan-based social structures, with income and property rights strongly correlated with the ownership of animals. The Maasai people of East Africa are a prime example of a pastoralist civilization; they are well-known for their customs of herding cattle and complex social systems centred on warrior rank and age groups. Agriculture, or the cultivation of plants, is a radical change in human sustenance tactics. It entails the intentional domestication of plants as well as the planting, caring for, and harvesting of crops. Horticulture, which uses basic equipment and movable cultivation methods, and intensive agriculture, which uses sophisticated tools, irrigation, and permanent fields, are two further subcategories of agriculture. Because agricultural civilizations are often more sedentary, permanent settlements and higher population densities arise. This kind of sustenance makes excess production possible, which in turn fosters the growth of cities and governments, specialised labour, and intricate social structures. With their sophisticated irrigation and terracing techniques that sustained a sizable and heterogeneous population, the Inca civilization of the Andes offers a remarkable example of an agricultural community. The most modern modes of subsistence are represented by industrialism and postindustrialism, which are defined by mass consumption, mechanised production of products and services, and cutting edge technical innovation. The Industrial Revolution, which drastically changed conventional labour and production patterns, gave rise to this style. Urbanisation, the transition from farm to factory economies, and a greater reliance on fossil fuels and other non-renewable resources are characteristics of industrial civilizations. Globalisation, information technology, and service-oriented economies are the main trends of the post-industrial era. Industrial and post-industrial countries have complex social structures, including elaborate class systems, a large range of job categories, and numerous bureaucratic organisations. The United States, with its extensive manufacturing base giving way to a highly developed, service-oriented economy, is a shining example of both an industrial and post-industrial civilization. Every kind of subsistence arranges the labour and technology processes needed to process those materials in addition to offering a way to produce those resources. In order to allocate and control the workload and maintain sustainable and effective production, societies create specialised roles, organisations, and institutions. In agricultural cultures, for example, farmers, toolmakers, and dealers may have specialised responsibilities, but in industrial society, the range of occupations is greater, ranging from factory workers to engineers and marketers. The ways in which various means of sustenance are traded and circulated also varied greatly. In their communities, foragers frequently pool resources; pastoralists could exchange animal products for agricultural items; agricultural societies trade locally and regionally; and industrial societies operate in the global market economy. Moreover, means of sustenance both reflect and uphold certain cultural norms and goals. Industrial societies tend to emphasise innovation, individual achievement, and economic growth; foraging societies emphasise egalitarianism and a strong connection to nature; pastoralists value mobility and kinship bonds; agricultural societies may prioritise land ownership and community cooperation. A society's general way of life, social standards, and behavioural patterns are influenced by these cultural values. Although each method of subsistence is examined separately in this chapter, it is crucial to recognise that most communities combine customs from several modes. To augment their food supply, for instance, a mostly agricultural community may still practise pastoralism or foraging, while industrial societies might incorporate small-scale farming and urban gardening. Societies are able to adjust to shifting environmental, economic, and social situations because of this mixing of subsistence techniques. Many old methods of subsistence—especially pastoralism, small-scale farming, and gathering-hunting—face serious difficulties in the modern day. These include pressures from urbanisation and globalisation, loss of traditional lands, climate change, and environmental degradation. More people are realising how crucial it is to protect and perpetuate these economic lifeways because of their resilience and sustainable practices, in addition to their cultural and historical significance. Legal acknowledgment of land rights, encouragement of sustainable lifestyles, and programmes to combine traditional knowledge with contemporary conservation efforts are some of the measures used to save these subsistence methods. Diversity in subsistence methods is valuable, and we should protect it so that everyone has a more sustainable and inclusive future.