Evidence from Archaeology

Gender and Sexuality ANTH 2301 Evidence from Archaeology In an attempt to comprehend the genesis of human societal constructions related to gender and sexuality, several scholars have resorted to studying the archaeological record. To put together an understanding of the history of gendered and sexual behaviours within the framework of human evolution, archaeologists employ a variety of techniques, including temporal sequencing, fossil evidence, comparison with extant cultures, and an understanding of the evolutionary process. The "man the hunter" theory influenced early views of gender in the evolutionary history of humans. Many anthropologists held the view in the 1950s and 1960s that hunting was the main method of survival for humans throughout their evolutionary history, up until around 10,000 years ago, when they domesticated plants and animals. Since most modern gathering-hunting communities were dominated by males, experts surmised that throughout prehistory, hunting was inherently and primarily a male activity. It was believed that because of the responsibilities of childrearing, breastfeeding, and pregnancy, women could not hunt. It was probable that while males went out in small groups to hunt animals, adult women stayed at the home base along with their kids. According to this theory, males created the majority of the equipment used for hunting and preparing meat. Male control over females resulted from men's dependence for meat, which gave them status and authority. Because coordination of hunting excursions required communication, hunting also contributed to the development of language. Larger brains were then activated by language and tools. Therefore, it was believed that the primary factor influencing the evolution of humans' hominid predecessors was hunting by males. Researchers in the then-emerging discipline of sociobiology asserted in the 1970s that specific gender roles and sexual relationships among humans developed to be natural, drawing on the "man the hunter" theory. A branch of biology called sociobiology looks at evolutionary processes in an effort to understand human behaviour. Sociobiologists studied gender roles, for example, trying to figure out how gender-specific reproductive and survival tactics would have been encouraged by the ways in which evolution may have moulded men and women differently. Numerous sociobiologists contend that because men were primarily involved in childcare and food preparation, women evolved to be more nurturing and submissive, with an emphasis on attracting the attention of men. In contrast, men, as hunters, are thought to have evolved to be strong and aggressive, capable of strategizing in groups but also engaged in fierce competition to achieve the status of dominant male. Because they were dependent on men to provide meat for themselves and their offspring, women would have been inclined to lure men into committed monogamous partnerships in order to guarantee both a steady source of food and defence against other hostile men. Men would have been driven to mate with as many females as possible in order to ensure the highest number of offspring, as they would have been mostly free from the duties of childcare. In American society, this understanding of gender relations as the natural order became widely accepted. The extensive criticism of the "man the hunter" theory in archaeology and other anthropological subfields is less well-known in American society. Many anthropologists were challenging the idea that hunting was the main means of sustenance for gathering-hunting communities at the same time as sociobiologists were developing their theories of gender. In modern gathering-hunting tribes, gathering makes up significantly more of the food than hunting does. Women and children go out and assemble in groups many times a week, satisfying their own nutritional requirements and sharing with others, instead of staying at the home base. Because women continue to be active during pregnancy and carry their unborn children in slings or on their hips until they are ready to keep up, pregnancy and breastfeeding do not severely affect their ability to engage in subsistence tasks. Even if meat has a great value, being able to hunt does not make males superior to women, nor does it make women reliant on men. The majority of modern gathering-hunting tribes treat men and women equally. Some feminist archaeologists have proposed a "woman the gatherer" theory in opposition to the "man the hunter" theory. These experts use fossil evidence to support their claim that, during the early stages of human evolution, women's actions were just as crucial to survival and advancement. The teeth of early hominids show that they were omnivores, consuming a wide range of foods, according to these archaeologists. Early hominid skulls have unusually big, well-worn molars, which suggest an adaptation to a diet of gritty foods like nuts, seeds, and peel-tough fruits. It is probable that gathering was the main method of obtaining food for the ancestors of humans, given the importance of plant foods in the diets of modern gathering-hunting peoples (though, of course, one must be cautious in drawing such generalisations). Given the importance of gathering, it is plausible that early hominids' inventiveness was directed towards creating tools for gathering as well, such as digging sticks and stones to crack hard shells, in addition to creating hunting gear. It would have been more difficult for hominid newborns to grip onto their mothers on gathering expeditions since they did not have the grasping toes that other apes do. Therefore, a baby sling composed of animal skins—known as a kaross among the San peoples of the Kalahari in southern Africa—might have been a significant development. Regretfully, there is no evidence of infant slings or digging rods in the fossil record since they would have been composed of organic components. The organic tools used for collecting would have long since broken down, but the stone tools employed for hunting are abundant in the fossil record. If hominins relied heavily on gathering as a means of obtaining food, or if gathering was at least as important as hunting, then women probably held significant social influence in addition to males. Women who gathered were likely involved in the invention of the tools used for gathering. Women were probably aware of the seasons and where to obtain high-quality meals while they were out and about in the community. Women would have had the freedom to enter into romantic and sexual relationships on their own terms and to end them whenever they choose if they had been able to support themselves. The assumptions of male dominance ingrained in the "man the hunter" paradigm are entirely refuted by what is known about gathering in gathering-hunting civilizations. Cultural anthropologists that study gathering-hunting cultures go beyond the "man the hunter" and "woman the gatherer" ideas to highlight how gendered division of labour in gathering-hunting societies is more flexible than these essentialist theories may imply. In some communities, women occasionally hunt for honey or kill small animals like insects and lizards, but males also harvest plant staples. As this textbook's introduction states, in the Andes of South America, a group of archaeologists under the direction of Randy Haas recently found the 9,000-year-old bones of a woman buried with projectile points and other hunting equipment (Gibbons 2020). Haas and his team think that the ten more women who were buried with hunting implements could have also been female hunters after reexamining the archaeological findings on those burials. The archaeological evidence on the genesis of human gender roles and sexual relations is inconclusive, similar to the data derived from primates and human biology. The primary takeaway appears to be that people's gender and sexual expressions are culturally and physiologically malleable.