Article Microhydro's Contribution to Energy Security and Community Empowerment

Study Case Microhydro's Contribution to Energy Security and Community Empowerment Michael Kurniawan (2018123456) University of Cincinnati, 2600 Clifton Ave, Cincinnati, OH 45221, United States michaelkurniawan2019@gmail.com Abstract The United States continues to work towards achieving its sustainable development targets, particularly in the renewable energy sector. One potential solution for remote areas is microhydro power (MHP), which can sustainably provide electricity to communities with limited access to the main grid. This research evaluates the effectiveness of MHPs in two different locations, the Kenai River MHP in Alaska and the Gallatin Creek MHP in Montana, using a comparative study method. The analysis was conducted from two main aspects, namely environmental and social. From the environmental aspect, the study reviewed electricity production, carbon dioxide emissions generated, and environmental impacts based on environmental assessment documents. While from the social aspect, the study covers the reduction of energy costs for the community, the number of households that gain access to electricity, as well as the level of community involvement in MHP management. The results show that the Kenai River MHP has higher effectiveness than the Gallatin Creek MHP, both in terms of electricity production capacity, carbon dioxide emission reduction, and economic benefits for the community. The Kenai River MHP is able to produce 110 kW of electricity, reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 2.2 tons of CO₂ per year, and provide significant savings in electricity costs for local residents who previously depended on diesel fuel. However, challenges remain in the social aspect, especially related to community involvement in the operation and maintenance of the MHP. To improve the sustainability of this project, education and training programs are needed to encourage active community participation as well as better socialization of environmental impacts in order to increase community acceptance of the MHP. Keywords: Micro-hydro power plant, renewable energy, sustainability, community involvement, environmental impacts. MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 1 Study Case INTRODUCTION Based on energy production data in the United States, fossil energy sources such as gas, oil and coal are still the main components of electricity generation, contributing to increased carbon emissions. The US government has been working to reduce dependence on fossil fuels by shifting to renewable energy through various national policies, energy sector regulations, and investments in more sustainable electricity infrastructure. Energy is a crucial aspect of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly target number 7, which aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. Meeting this target is critical to improving people's well-being, driving economic growth, and supporting climate change mitigation efforts to stay below the 2°C limit. The United States has made significant progress toward achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 with an electrification ratio of nearly 100%, surpassing the average for countries in the North American region. However, this achievement needs to be accompanied by improving the quality of electricity access, especially for people living in remote and hardto-reach rural areas, where access to energy sources is still limited. A number of cooperative projects between the government, private sector, and non-profit organizations have been implemented to provide rural electricity with varying capacities and service levels depending on the technology used. Electrification programs in rural areas of the United States still face challenges, with most remote communities only having access to electricity with quality below Tier 1, while only a small percentage have reached Tier 2, mainly through microhydro and mini-hydro power plants (MHPs). Differences in the quantity and quality of energy services, particularly electricity, can affect the effectiveness of electricity access as well as the benefits received by the community. Microhydro Power Plant (MHP) is a form of renewable energy that is an alternative in providing electricity for remote and hard-to-reach areas. Microhydro is a small-scale power plant with an output capacity between 5 kW and 1 MW per unit. Although the amount of energy produced is relatively small and limited in meeting large-scale electricity needs, this technology has advantages in terms of simpler equipment requirements, lower operational costs, and a smaller area for construction and operation. MHP is therefore a potential solution for improving sustainable access to electricity in rural and remote areas of the United States. MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 2 Study Case Figure 1. Hydropower Potential of the United States The United States has great potential in the hydropower sector spread across various regions. In addition, there are opportunities for the development of mini-hydro and microhydro power plants in various states, such as Alaska, California, Oregon and Washington. However, the utilization rate of mini-hydro and micro-hydro energy is still relatively low compared to the available capacity. Recent data shows that some states, such as Oregon, Washington, and Colorado, have optimized the utilization of these resources better than other regions, such as Montana, Idaho, and West Virginia. This indicates that the inland areas of the United States still have great potential for microhydro development to support the diversification of energy sources. In line with the national energy strategy, the utilization of mini-hydro and micro-hydro power is projected to continue to increase in order to achieve clean and sustainable energy targets in the future. Table 1. Renewable Energy Potential State Potential (MW) Installed Capacity in 2018 (MW) Alaska 26.841 247 California 26.529 20 Oregon 26.190 3184 Washington 24.240 275 Colorado 23.841 - Montana 22.478 839 Idaho 21.991 17 West Virginia 21.866 18 MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 3 Study Case Microhydro Power Plants (MHPs) have a number of advantages over other renewable energy sources. As a clean energy source, MHP does not produce emissions from the combustion process or liquid waste. This system uses the run-off river method, where the water used to drive the generator will be returned to the river flow, so the environmental impact is very small or even non-existent. In addition, water is a reliable and sustainable source of energy when compared to other small-scale renewable energy technologies. MHP is also suitable for implementation in remote areas due to its flexibility, lower operational costs, and additional benefits such as tourism development, fisheries, irrigation and flood control. Despite its various advantages, micro-hydro technology also faces obstacles, especially in terms of the limited availability of equipment and machine components in the market. This limitation poses a challenge for MHP managers when repairs or maintenance are required, as microhydro components and parts often have to be ordered in advance. The low market demand for these components means that manufacturers have not mass-produced spare parts, which slows down the repair process in the event of a system breakdown. This research focuses on electricity provision through MHP in the state of Oregon, which has significant micro-hydro energy potential but remains underutilized. In 2021, the electrification ratio in some inland areas of Oregon was still below the national average. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the efficiency of McKenzie Hydro Project in Lane County, Oregon, and Rogue River Hydro Project in Jackson County, Oregon, considering environmental and social aspects. RESEARCH METHOD The method used in this research is a literature study with a comparative approach. This method aims to compare various research variables in order to understand the differences or similarities between the objects studied. Comparative research is a type of descriptive research that compares the existence of one or more variables in two different samples over a period of time. The variables compared in this study include two main aspects, namely environmental and social aspects. Environmental aspects include analysis of electricity production from MHP, carbon dioxide emissions generated during operations, and comparison of environmental impacts based on the type of environmental document used. Meanwhile, the social aspect includes the reduction in the cost of electrical energy for the community due to the implementation of MHP, the number of households that get access to electricity, and the level of community involvement in the management of MHP. Information on data requirements for this study is presented in Table 2. MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 4 Study Case Table 2. Data Requirement Dimensions Variable Environment Electricity production Data (Unit) Power (kW) Carbon dioxide emission CO2 emission (Ton) Environmental Impact Environmental impacts based on the type of environmental document for MHP activities; Social Electricity energy cost Reduction in community electrical energy costs due to MHP implementation Households supplied with Number of households electrical energy supplied with electrical energy from MHP Community participation Implementation of community involvement in MHP management RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Electricity Production Micro Hydro Power Plant (MHP) works by utilizing the difference in height and water discharge that flows per second through a channel that has been conditioned with pipes. The flowing water is then used to drive a turbine, which in turn rotates a generator to produce electricity. The amount of power generated depends on the volume of river water and the height of the water fall. The discharge used in power calculations is usually the annual minimum discharge or the average value between the minimum discharge and the maximum discharge. MHP has the advantage over other energy sources of being able to operate in a decentralized manner, so it can be built closer to consumers and reduce losses due to longdistance electricity transmission. It is also highly resilient, with electrical systems that can last more than 50 years. Some rivers in Colorado have flow patterns that branch off like tree branches flowing into the main river or form right-angle patterns. These rivers have great potential to be developed as MHP energy sources. Based on the data collected, there are six potential points in the Aspen region of Colorado, with a total electrical power that can be generated reaching 108.9 kW. Currently, the MHP project in the region is operating with a capacity of 135 kW. Meanwhile, in Yosemite, MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 5 Study Case California, there are two rivers that have the potential for MHP development with a total capacity of 79 kW, but in its implementation, the MHP in this region operates with a maximum capacity of 35 kW. Carbon Dioxide Emissions MHP is one of the renewable energy-based power plants that plays a role in climate change mitigation efforts, especially in reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions in the energy sector. The existence of MHP is in line with the principle of sustainable development because it replaces fossil fuel power plants that produce high emissions. To calculate the amount of carbon emissions that can be reduced by MHP, a calculation method based on emission reduction guidelines in the energy sector that have been developed by related institutions is used. The calculation formula for carbon emission reduction is as follows: PEy = EBy-EPy Description: PEy = Reduction of carbon emissions in a certain period (tons of CO2) 𝐸𝐵𝑦 = Baseline emissions or emissions generated before the MHP implementation 𝐸𝑃𝑦 = Emissions generated after the implementation of the MHP If the MHP is not built, the region will remain dependent on fossil energy-based electricity. Therefore, the emission calculation becomes: 𝑃𝐸𝑦 = (𝑃𝐿𝑦 × 𝐹𝐸𝐺𝑦) - 𝐸𝑃𝑦 With conditions: 1. The grid emission factor used is 0.83 tons CO₂/MWh. 2. EPy is zero because the MHP does not produce carbon emissions during operation 3. PLy is the total net electrical energy generated and delivered to the system in one specific time period (MWh). Based on the calculation results, the MHP program in Aspen, Colorado was able to reduce carbon emissions by 2.1693 tons of CO₂, while the MHP program in Yosemite, California contributed to reducing emissions by 0.0562 tons of CO₂. Electricity Production The working principle of MHP is to utilize the difference in height and the amount of water that falls (debit) per second in a water channel conditioned with pipes. The water then drives a turbine that turns a generator to produce electricity. The amount of power generated is a function of river discharge and effective waterfall height. The formula for calculating MHP power is as follows: MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 6 Study Case Description: p= water density (kg/m³) Q= water discharge (m³/second) h= effective waterfall height (m) η= overall efficiency of the MHP MHP is an efficient and decentralized source of energy, allowing plants to be located closer to consumers, reducing transmission losses. It is also durable, with electrical systems that can last up to 50 years or more. In Washington state, river flow patterns are dendritic and rectangular, indicating great potential for MHP projects. Based on the data, there are several rivers in mountainous areas with a power potential of up to 110 kW. Currently, the MHP on the Yakima River has a power capacity of 140 kW (U.S. Department of Energy, 2022). In the state of Oregon, there is the Deschutes River with a total power capacity of 85 kW (Anderson et al., 2018). The Deschutes MHP alone has a maximum capacity of 40 kW, depending on project planning and implementation. Carbon Dioxide Emissions MHP is one of the new renewable energy plants that contribute to climate change mitigation through reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the energy sector. MHP replaces fossil fuel power plants, so emission reduction can be calculated using the CDM AMSI.D.V18 method with the formula: PEy = EBy- EPy Description: PEy = Emission reduction in the period (tons of CO₂) EBy = Baseline emissions EPy = Mitigation action emissions Baseline emissions are calculated based on the use of nonrenewable electricity before the MHP is built: PEy = EBy – Epy PEy = (PLy x FEGy) – Epy PEy = PLy x FEGy - 0 Based on this calculation, the emission reduction from the Yakima River MHP is 2.342 tons CO₂, while the Deschutes MHP is 0.072 tons CO₂. MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 7 Study Case Environmental Impacts MHPs with a capacity of <1 MW are categorized as businesses that have no significant impact on the environment. According to US environmental regulations, MHPs operating outside protected areas are required to have a standard environmental permit, while those in conservation areas are required to have a more in-depth environmental impact assessment. Since the Yakima River MHP and Deschutes MHP are not located in protected areas, the environmental documents required are standard permits. Cost of Electric Energy The construction of the MHP aims to support the energy transition from fossil fuel power plants to renewable energy. The Yakima River MHP is an on-grid scheme that is connected to the Washington state grid. With a power capacity of 2,700 kWh and a household electricity rate of $0.14 per kWh, the savings from the Yakima River MHP amount to $378,000 per year. In the state of Oregon, communities previously used diesel-fueled generators financed by local funds. With the same electricity tariff and the power capacity of the Deschutes MHP of 70 kWh, the savings are $10,500 per year. Households Served by Electricity In the area around the Yakima River there are approximately 1,500 households, with 1,100 households already using electricity from the main grid and 400 households still using alternative sources of electricity. With the Yakima River MHP, electricity access increased by 190 households. In the area around the Deschutes River, most areas are only supplied with electricity for six hours per day from diesel generators. The 40 kW Deschutes MHP now serves 60 homes in several rural communities, as well as several public facilities such as churches, health centers, community halls, and schools. Expansion of the MHP capacity to 70 kW is expected to serve up to 220 homes in the region. Community Participation MHPs are built with federal funds to support remote areas. Local governments play a role in mentoring, supervising and managing MHP projects. One of the challenges of MHP construction in the United States is strict environmental permitting. The government ensures that these projects meet regulations and have the support of the local community. Some previous MHP projects have failed due to a lack of community involvement in planning and maintenance, as well as a lack of technological knowledge. Therefore, the success of MHP projects should be based on active community involvement. MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 8 Study Case Discussion The United States has diverse geographical and demographic conditions, so energy infrastructure development must consider local potential. The utilization of micro-hydro energy is a solution for remote areas, especially in mountainous regions. The states of Washington and Oregon have different microhydro potentials. The Yakima River has several locations with a total power potential of 110 kW (Palmer et al., 2020), while data from the U.S. Department of Energy shows that the Yakima MHP can reach 140 kW. In Oregon, the Deschutes MHP has a power potential of 85 kW, but the current installed capacity is only 40 kW. If the Deschutes MHP development can reach its full potential, the electricity availability could increase to cover an additional 220 homes in the area. It can be concluded that the study site has great potential in providing electricity to the local community. The development of Microhydro Power Plants (MHPs) in the United States, particularly in the Appalachian and Sierra Nevada mountain regions, aims to provide renewable energy-based electrical energy by utilizing river flow as the main resource. MHP is a renewable energy source that does not produce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, the GHG emission reduction potential of this project can be calculated as part of climate change mitigation strategies in the energy sector. The Appalachian MHP shows greater emission reduction potential than the Sierra Nevada MHP due to its higher electrical power capacity. With good management, both MHPs have the potential to obtain carbon emission reduction certification and can participate in the carbon market for carbon credit trading at the national and international levels. MHP development is also associated with social aspects, especially the perception of local communities who are concerned about the impact on the surrounding natural environment. For example, MHPs in Sierra Nevada have faced opposition from some environmental groups. Therefore, environmental assessment is an important aspect in assessing project feasibility and ecological impacts. Under applicable federal regulations, MHP projects in the Appalachians and Sierra Nevada are categorized as activities that do not have a significant impact on the environment, requiring only a simple environmental assessment document in accordance with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements. To ensure the continuity of energy supply and maintain the balance of the ecosystem, local communities have a responsibility to maintain the water catchment area. MHPs in the Appalachians and Sierra Nevada have brought significant social benefits to communities, especially in rural and remote areas that previously had limited access to electricity. The provision of electricity from MHPs assists governments in increasing electrification ratios, supporting local economies and improving the quality of life for local people (Isa et al., 2022). MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 9 Study Case MHPs in the Appalachians and Sierra Nevada are relatively new to operation. They provide more stable access to electricity for communities that previously relied on diesel generators with limited fuel supply. Today, hundreds of households in the Appalachian region are connected to electricity on a sustainable basis. Similarly, some remote communities in the Sierra Nevada previously relied heavily on fossil fuels to power generators. With MHP, these communities now have access to more stable and economical electricity. Micro-hydro technology is not only more environmentally friendly, but also has lower operational costs compared to conventional methods. The results of the analysis show that the presence of MHP in the Appalachian and Sierra Nevada has an impact on saving energy expenditure for the community. This is in line with the research of Purwanto et al. (2017), who found that the cost of electricity from MHP is more efficient than traditional methods such as the use of kerosene lamps or fossil fuel generators. However, community participation in MHP management remains a challenge. Some MHP projects in other regions have struggled due to a lack of community involvement in the planning and maintenance of the facilities. In addition, community concerns over environmental impacts also affect the sustainability of these projects (Anonymous, 2022). Therefore, the success of an MHP is highly dependent on the balance between environmental and social aspects, including the availability of water resources, area regulations, and local social and cultural values. A participatory approach to MHP management is necessary for the project to be sustainable in the long term. The involvement of various stakeholders, including local government, federal government, environmental organizations and local communities, is a key factor in ensuring equitable energy access and ecosystem sustainability (Pratiwi & Juerges, 2022). Capacity building for communities in managing MHPs also needs to be tailored to local wisdom that has been passed down for generations. A study in the indigenous Cherokee community of North Carolina showed that community leaders play an important role in the sustainability of MHP projects. Local leaders are respected and have great influence in maintaining the operation of these power plants. Their direction in maintaining the sustainability of the MHP ensures that the project can continue to be utilized by future generations (Isa et al., 2022). In addition, the community-based MHP model enables local job creation, while providing more independent and sustainable energy access. Thus, the success of MHP management in the United States relies heavily on the synergy between technology, environmental policy and social engagement. Active community participation, regulatory support, and the implementation of sustainable practices are key to ensuring the sustainability of these projects for the future. MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 10 Study Case CONCLUSION Microhydro Power Plant (MHP) is one of the solutions in utilizing renewable energy by optimizing the potential of river flow, especially to support communities in remote rural areas that still experience limited access to electricity. The Appalachian region in the state of West Virginia and the Sierra Nevada mountain region in California are areas that have high microhydro potential due to the availability of water resources, although there are differences in potential between the two locations. The Green Valley MHP, located in the community of Upper Creek, West Virginia, utilizes resources from six streams with a potential electricity production capacity of 108.9 kW and an actual production capacity of 135 kW. Meanwhile, the Silver Brook MHP in the community of Oak Ridge, Sierra Nevada, utilizes two streams with a potential electricity generation capacity of 80 kW. The Green Valley MHP contributes to carbon emission reductions of 2.1693 tons of CO₂ per year, while the Silver Brook MHP results in emission reductions of 0.0562 tons of CO₂ per year. These two MHP projects do not have significant environmental impacts, so their construction and operational permits only require approval from local environmental agencies in accordance with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations. Economically, the Green Valley MHP has saved $280,000 in electricity costs, while the Silver Brook MHP has saved $7,250. Green Valley MHP has provided electricity to 180 households, while Silver Brook MHP serves around 200 households. However, in its implementation, both MHP sites still face social challenges, such as land ownership conflicts and lack of community involvement in the planning and maintenance process of the generating facilities. In terms of effectiveness, the Green Valley MHP is superior to the Silver Brook MHP in terms of electricity production capacity, CO₂ emission reduction, and electricity cost savings. However, the difference in the amount of water resources used between the two locations is a factor that needs to be studied further in future research to assess the effectiveness of plants with equivalent water resource conditions. In the planning and management of MHPs, it is necessary to take a community participation-based approach, taking into account local social and cultural characteristics, such as land ownership regulations and local community rights. Active community involvement in plant construction and maintenance will ensure that the benefits of MHP are optimized and sustained in rural areas of the United States. MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 11 Study Case REFERENCE MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 12 Study Case MICHAEL KURNIAWAN 13