Reference Tables for Physical Setting Earth Science

Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE Radioactive Decay Data Specific Heats of Common Materials RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE (years) ISOTOPE 14 Carbon-14 C 40 K Potassium-40 14 N Ar Ca Uranium-238 238 U 206 Rubidium-87 87 Rb 87 4.18 2.11 9 Water vapor Dry air 2.00 1.01 Basalt Granite Iron Copper 0.84 0.79 0.45 0.38 Lead 0.13 9 4.5 × 10 Pb 10 4.9 × 10 Sr Equations Eccentricity = (Joules/gram • °C) Liquid water Solid water (ice) 1.3 × 10 40 SPECIFIC HEAT 3 5.7 × 10 40 MATERIAL distance between foci length of major axis Properties of Water change in field value Gradient = distance Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g change in value Rate of change = time mass Density = volume Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL Average Chemical Composition of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere ELEMENT (symbol) Oxygen (O) Silicon (Si) Aluminum (Al) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Sodium (Na) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) Nitrogen (N) Hydrogen (H) Other HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE Percent by mass CRUST Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0 28.20 8.23 5.63 4.15 2.36 2.33 0.88 0.48 0.49 1.18 1.11 0.33 2.09 1.42 78.0 0.91 0.07 66.0 1.0 1.0 Eurypterus remipes Lake Erie Ap p Grenville Province (Highlands) P te la au Key ) ds an l p (U Tug Hill Plateau International boundary State boundary Landscape region boundary ds an The Catskills Adirondack Mountains l ow eL c en Major geographic province boundary Allegheny Plateau Erie-Ontario Lowlands (Plains) Lake Ontario r aw .L t S Interior Lowlands Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State Interior Lowlands al a c hi an Ch am pl ain Lo wl ands N 0 20 40 60 Kilometers 80 Miles 0 10 20 30 40 50 c an ti A tl in W Pla stal a o C lands High n o s Hud ng n Pro hatta n a M Huds o n-Mo haw k Lo wla nds T a c o n ic Mou ntains N Lo ewa w lan rk ds S N e w En (H gla ig nd h la Pr n o d s) vin ce E BUFFALO NIAGARA FALLS 79° JAMESTOWN ERIE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 78° 78° 77° SYRACUSE } } limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones lim eston es, sha les, sa ndsto nes, an d con glome rates SILUR IAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite. CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles Lines are generalized structure trends. MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks ORDOVICIAN CAMBRIAN DEVONIAN SILURIAN } } } 41° SE Y 74° NEW YORK CITY JE R KINGSTON ALBANY Ri ve r SLIDE MT. W NE MT. MARCY 74° Intensely metamorphosed rocks (regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.) metamorphosed rocks Dominantly origin Dominantly sedimentary 75° River LATE T RIAS SIC a nd EA RLY JURAS SIC c onglo merate s, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill) PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales M oh aw k MASSENA OLD FORGE UTICA er iv R 75° ar e CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays 76° BINGHAMTON Susquehanna ITHACA P E N N S Y L V A N I A 77° WATERTOWN 76° OSWEGO LAKES 44° ELMIRA FINGER ROCHESTER LAKE ONTARIO elevation 75 m 1989 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 45° la w GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK 42° LAKE elevation 175 m 43° 79° ar a R iv er i ag N r en c w La . St modified from r ve Ri e se ne Ge Ri ve r 73° 45° PLATTSBURGH LO 0 41° 72° 20 40 60 Kilometers 80 W S N ATLANTIC OCEAN 40°30' 73° Miles 0 10 20 30 40 50 73°30' LAND NG IS S O UND LA ND G IS73° 41° ON L RIVERHEAD 42° 43° 44° AM P LA IN CH LAKE e er iv R on ds Hu Hu dso n VERMONT MASSACHUSETTS CONNECTICUT Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State De River E Surface Ocean Currents t ou t he a st Ind ian a Tr er ia n a nc h Fiji Plate t Eas Easter Island Hot Spot Nazca Plate P er Galapagos Hot Spot Convergent plate boundary (subduction zone) subducting plate overriding plate Canary Islands Hot Spot Sandwich Plate Mantle hot spot Bouvet Hot Spot St. Helena Hot Spot African Plate Eurasian Plate Iceland Hot Spot Complex or uncertain plate boundary Scotia Plate South American Plate an ibbe Car ate Pl Antarctic Plate Cocos Plate Yellowstone Hot Spot North American Plate San Andreas Fault Pacific Plate Divergent plate boundary (usually broken by transform faults along mid-ocean ridges) Tasman Hot Spot To n ga Tre nc h Rid ge tla nti c Mi d -A Juan de Fuca Plate Hawaii Hot Spot h Aleu t ia n Tr en c Indian-Australian Plate M Philippine Plate Transform plate boundary (transform fault) Rid g e NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and boundaries are shown. Relative motion at plate boundary Antarctic Plate an S Key fr ic an Ri f s tA Ea Mi d - di In st e e hw dg ut Ri So i an ab Ar late P c Rid ge ia n Ri dg e Ind Pa cifi Eurasian Plate Mi d- Atla ntic Rid ge Tectonic Plates Ch il e T ren uch Relationship of Transported 100.0 Boulders 25.6 n lift) osi o r (U p &E g rin the g Wea l t in Me IGNEOUS ROCK 0.1 Sand 0.01 0.006 Silt 0.001 Clay 0.0001 1000 500 100 50 10 5 fi c l i di So 1 0.5 MAGMA Pebbles 0.2 0.1 0.05 g 1.0 0.01 Me l tin 6.4 0.0004 at io METAMORPHIC ROCK PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm) M e lt ing re H e at a ssu nd/ or Pr e m is M e tam o rp h ( Up Wea lift) the rin g & Eros io n /o r Pre ssure t an d a e H phi s m r o m a t Me Cobbles 10.0 SEDIMENTS Er o si on SEDIMENTARY ROCK Particle Size to Water Velocity D ep os a n d i ti on Bur ial (U p lif t) Wea th er ing & Er osi on /or a nd n on cti ntati o a p e o m em C n C Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s) This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due to differences in particle density and shape. noncrystalline Basaltic glass Scoria Pumice Vesicular andesite Rhyolite Andesite Granite Diorite Vesicular basalt Basalt INTRUSIVE (Plutonic) Diabase Gabbro Peridotite Pegmatite LOWER FELSIC (rich in Si, Al) Dunite Vesicular rhyolite CRYSTAL SIZE 10 mm 1 mm less than or to 1 mm larger 10 mm EXTRUSIVE (Volcanic) Obsidian (usually appears black) LIGHTER MINERAL COMPOSITION (relative by volume) CHARACTERISTICS IGNEOUS ROCKS ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification COLOR DARKER DENSITY HIGHER 100% Potassium feldspar (pink to white) Quartz (clear to white) 75% Plagioclase feldspar (white to gray) 50% 50% Pyroxene (green) Biotite (black) 25% Amphibole (black) 0% Glassy Olivine (green) 25% 0% Nonvesicular Vesicular (gas pockets) Fine Coarse Very coarse MAFIC (rich in Fe, Mg) COMPOSITION 100% 75% TEXTURE Nonvesicular Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION Pebbles, cobbles, and/or boulders embedded in sand, silt, and/or clay Clastic (fragmental) Sand (0.006 to 0.2 cm) Silt (0.0004 to 0.006 cm) Clay (less than 0.0004 cm) COMMENTS Rounded fragments Mostly quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals; may contain fragments of other rocks and minerals Angular fragments ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL Conglomerate Breccia Fine to coarse Sandstone Very fine grain Siltstone Compact; may split easily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shale CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION Fine to coarse crystals Crystalline COMMENTS Halite Gypsum Microscopic to very coarse Bioclastic MAP SYMBOL Rock salt Crystals from chemical precipitates and evaporites Dolomite Crystalline or bioclastic ROCK NAME Rock gypsum Dolostone Calcite Precipitates of biologic origin or cemented shell fragments Carbon Compacted plant remains Limestone Bituminous coal Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION TYPE OF METAMORPHISM NONFOLIATED FOLIATED AMPHIBOLE GARNET PYROXENE Medium to coarse Regional (Heat and pressure increases) MICA QUARTZ FELDSPAR BANDING MINERAL ALIGNMENT Fine Fine to medium COMMENTS Low-grade metamorphism of shale Foliation surfaces shiny from microscopic mica crystals ROCK NAME Slate Phyllite Platy mica crystals visible from metamorphism of clay or feldspars Schist High-grade metamorphism; mineral types segregated into bands Gneiss Fine Carbon Regional Metamorphism of bituminous coal Fine Various minerals Contact (heat) Various rocks changed by heat from nearby magma/lava Hornfels Metamorphism of quartz sandstone Quartzite Fine to coarse Quartz Anthracite coal Regional Calcite and/or dolomite or Metamorphism of limestone or dolostone Marble contact Coarse Various minerals Pebbles may be distorted or stretched Metaconglomerate MAP SYMBOL GEOLOGIC HISTORY Eon Era Period PHANEROZOIC QUATERNARY CENOZOIC L A T E PROTEROZOIC Sediment Bedrock HOLOCENE 0 0.01 Humans, mastodonts, mammoths PLEISTOCENE 1.8 PLIOCENE 5.3 Large carnivorous mammals MIOCENE 23.0 OLIGOCENE33.9 EOCENE 55.8 PALEOCENE 65.5 Abundant grazing mammals Earliest grasses Many modern groups of mammals Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants LATE MESOZOIC CRETACEOUS First sexually reproducing organisms Earliest flowering plants Diverse bony fishes EARLY 146 LATE Earliest birds MIDDLE JURASSIC Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids EARLY 200 E A R L Y Earliest mammals LATE TRIASSIC Oceanic oxygen begins to enter the atmosphere Earliest dinosaurs MIDDLE EARLY 251 LATE MIDDLE PALEOZOIC Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites) Mammal-like reptiles PERMIAN EARLY L A T E Oceanic oxygen produced by cyanobacteria combines with iron, forming iron oxide layers on ocean floor CARBONIFEROUS P R E C A M B R I A N M I D D L E M I D D L E Earliest stromatolites Oldest microfossils ARCHEAN 3000 NEOGENE PALEOGENE 1000 2000 NY Rock Record Life on Earth Million years ago Million years ago 0 500 Epoch E A R L Y 4000 Abundant reptiles 299 LATE EARLY 318 LATE PENNSYLVANIAN MISSISSIPPIAN Extensive coal-forming forests Abundant amphibians Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles MIDDLE EARLY 359 Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Extinction of many marine organisms LATE DEVONIAN MIDDLE Earth’s first forests Earliest ammonoids and sharks Abundant fish EARLY 416 Evidence of biological carbon Earliest insects Earliest land plants and animals LATE SILURIAN EARLY Abundant eurypterids 444 LATE Oldest known rocks ORDOVICIAN Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs MIDDLE EARLY 488 LATE Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system 4600 Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms) Earliest fishes Extinction of many primitive marine organisms Earliest trilobites Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts MIDDLE CAMBRIAN EARLY 542 Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms) 580 A B Cryptolithus Elliptocephala C D Valcouroceras Phacops Abundant stromatolites 1300 (Index fossils not drawn to scale) E F Centroceras Hexameroceras H G I Eucalyptocrinus Manticoceras J K Tetragraptus Ctenocrinus L M Coelophysis Dicellograptus N Stylonurus Eurypterus OF NEW YORK STATE Time Distribution of Fossils S I H BIRDS MAMMALS VASCULAR PLANTS BRACHIOPODS GASTROPODS CORALS Pangaea begins to break up 232 million years ago Alleghenian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Africa along transform margin, forming Pangaea R Q N P M E X Catskill delta forms Erosion of Acadian Mountains Acadian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean Z V U D T 359 million years ago Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins Y Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta forms Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc K B 119 million years ago Intrusion of Palisades sill EURYPTERIDS CRINOIDS G 59 million years ago Sands and clays underlying Long Island and Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean North America and Africa separate PLACODERM FISH F GRAPTOLITES C Advance and retreat of last continental ice Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins L TRILOBITES AMMONOIDS DINOSAURS NAUTILOIDS O Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses Important Geologic Events in New York (including important fossils of New York) The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end of the Early Cambrian). W J 458 million years ago Widespread deposition over most of New York along edge of Iapetus Ocean A Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean Erosion of Grenville Mountains Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks and Hudson Highlands O Mastodont Beluga Whale P Cooksonia Q R Naples Tree Bothriolepis S Condor T U V Cystiphyllum Lichenaria W X Maclurites Pleurodictyum Y Z Eospirifer Platyceras Mucrospirifer Aneurophyton ADU (2011) Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 S 17 TRAVEL TIME (min) 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 P 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 103 km) 8 9 10 Dewpoint (°C) Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 1 – 33 – 28 – 24 – 21 –18 –14 –12 –10 –7 –5 –3 –1 1 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19 21 23 25 27 29 2 3 – 36 – 28 – 22 –18 –14 –12 –8 –6 –3 –1 1 3 6 8 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 – 29 – 22 –17 –13 –9 –6 –4 –1 1 4 6 9 11 13 15 17 20 22 24 26 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 – 29 – 20 –15 – 24 –11 –17 – 7 –11 –19 – 4 – 7 –13 – 21 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 1 –2 –5 – 9 –14 – 28 4 1 –2 – 5 – 9 –16 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 –10 –17 9 7 4 1 –1 – 6 –10 –17 11 9 7 4 2 – 2 – 5 –10 –19 14 12 10 7 4 2 –2 – 5 –10 –19 16 14 12 10 8 5 3 –1 – 5 –10 –19 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 2 –1 – 5 –10 –18 20 18 17 15 13 11 9 6 3 0 –4 –9 22 21 19 17 16 14 11 9 7 4 1 –3 24 23 21 19 18 16 14 12 10 8 5 1 Relative Humidity ( Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 9 %) Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1 28 40 48 55 61 66 71 73 77 79 81 83 85 86 87 88 88 89 90 91 91 92 92 92 93 93 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 11 23 33 41 48 54 58 63 67 70 72 74 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 86 13 20 32 37 45 51 56 59 62 65 67 69 71 72 74 75 76 77 78 79 11 20 28 36 42 46 51 54 57 60 62 64 66 68 69 70 71 72 1 11 20 27 35 39 43 48 50 54 56 58 60 62 64 65 66 6 14 22 28 33 38 41 45 48 51 53 55 57 59 61 10 17 24 28 33 37 40 44 46 49 51 53 55 6 13 19 25 29 33 36 40 42 45 47 49 4 10 16 21 26 30 33 36 39 42 44 2 8 14 19 23 27 30 34 36 39 1 7 12 17 21 25 28 31 34 1 6 11 15 20 23 26 29 5 10 14 18 21 25 4 9 13 17 20 4 9 12 16 Temperature 110 Water boils 220 100 200 180 160 140 90 80 70 60 120 50 100 40 80 Room temperature 30 20 60 10 40 Water freezes 0 20 0 –20 –10 –20 –30 –40 –40 –60 –50 Pressure 1040.0 30.70 1036.0 30.60 380 370 360 1032.0 350 1028.0 30.50 30.40 30.30 340 1024.0 330 30.10 1016.0 30.00 320 310 One atmosphere 300 30.20 1020.0 1012.0 29.90 29.80 290 1008.0 29.70 280 1004.0 270 29.60 260 1000.0 250 996.0 29.40 992.0 29.30 240 230 988.0 220 29.50 29.20 29.10 984.0 Key to Weather Map Symbols 29.00 Station Model 28 Station Model Explanation 980.0 28.80 972.0 28.70 968.0 28.60 196 1 2 +19/ 27 .25 28.90 976.0 28.50 Air Masses Present Weather cA continental arctic Drizzle Rain Smog Hail ThunderRain storms showers cP continental polar cT continental tropical mT maritime tropical Snow Sleet Freezing rain Fog Haze Snow showers mP maritime polar Fronts Hurricane Cold Warm Stationary Occluded Tornado Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of an equinox. The locations shift somewhat with the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere, the belts shift northward in the summer and southward in the winter. (Not drawn to scale) Electromagnetic Spectrum X rays Gamma rays Microwaves Ultraviolet Infrared Radio waves Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength Visible light Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red (Not drawn to scale) Characteristics of Stars (Name in italics refers to star represented by a .) (Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.) 1,000,000 Deneb Luminosity (Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun) 100,000 Massive Stars Betelgeuse SUPERGIANTS Rigel (Intermediate stage) Spica 10,000 GIANTS Polaris 1,000 (Intermediate stage) Aldebaran 100 MA 10 Pollux IN (Ea SEQ rl y st a Sirius UE ge 1 ) NC Alpha Centauri E Sun 0.1 40 Eridani B 0.01 Barnard’s Star WHITE DWARFS (Late stage) 0.001 Procyon B 20,000 30,000 10,000 8,000 Small Stars Proxima Centauri 0.0001 6,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 Surface Temperature (K) Blue Blue White White Yellow Orange Red Color Solar System Data Celestial Object SUN MERCURY Mean Distance from Sun (million km) — Period of Revolution (d=days) (y=years) — Period of Rotation at Equator 27 d Eccentricity of Orbit — Equatorial Diameter (km) Mass (Earth = 1) 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4 5.4 Density (g/cm3) 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2 EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5 MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9 JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3 SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7 URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3 NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8 149.6 27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3 EARTH’S MOON (0.386 from Earth) HARDNESS FRACTURE LUSTER CLEAVAGE Properties of Common Minerals 1–2 COMMON COLORS DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS silver to black streak, pencil lead, gray greasy feel lubricants Metallic luster  2.5 5.5 – 6.5 gray-black streak, cubic cleavage, silver density = 7.6 g/cm C Graphite PbS Galena batteries black to black streak, ore of iron, silver magnetic steel brassy green-black streak, ore of yellow (fool’s gold) sulfur Fe O 3 FeS metallic silver or  or 1 MINERAL NAME ore of lead, 3  5.5 – 6.5 Magnetite 4 Pyrite 2 ore of iron, red-brown streak Fe O earthy red 2 jewelry white to 1 COMPOSITION*  6.5 Either metallic  USE(S) Hematite 3 ceramics, greasy feel  Mg Si O green 3 paper 4 10 (OH) Talc 2 yellow to 2 white-yellow streak sulfuric acid white to easily scratched plaster of paris, pink or gray by fingernail drywall  S Sulfur amber 2 2 – 2.5 2.5 2.5 – 3 CaSO • 2H O  colorless to flexible in yellow thin sheets 4 paint, roofing  colorless to cubic cleavage, white salty taste melts ice black to flexible in construction dark brown thin sheets materials KAl Si O 3 3 Nonmetallic luster 3.5 4 5–6 5.5 6 6 10 (OH) Muscovite mica 2 food additive,  NaCl Halite K(Mg,Fe)  AlSi O 3 3 Selenite gypsum 2 10 colorless bubbles with acid, cement, or variable rhombohedral cleavage lime colorless bubbles with acid building or variable when powdered stones colorless or cleaves in hydrofluoric variable 4 directions acid black to cleaves in mineral collections, dark green 2 directions at 90° jewelry black to cleaves at mineral collections, CaNa(Mg,Fe) dark green 56° and 124° jewelry Si O white to cleaves in ceramics, pink 2 directions at 90° glass white to cleaves in 2 directions, ceramics, gray striations visible glass  3 Biotite mica (OH) CaCO 2 Calcite 3 CaMg(CO )  Dolomite 3 2 CaF  Fluorite 2 (Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al) Pyroxene  (Si,Al) O 2   7 6.5 – 7.5 *Chemical symbols: 22 (commonly augite) 6 (Al,Fe,Ti) (O,OH) KAlSi O 3 2 green to commonly light green furnace bricks, gray or brown and granular jewelry colorless or glassy luster, may form glass, jewelry, variable hexagonal crystals electronics dark red often seen as red glassy grains jewelry (NYS gem), to green in NYS metamorphic rocks abrasives  (Fe,Mg) SiO 2 SiO 3 2 8 4 3 12 Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur C = carbon F = fluorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = silicon Ca = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium  = dominant form of breakage Plagioclase feldspar Olivine Quartz 2 Fe Al Si O  Amphibole (commonly hornblende) (commonly orthoclase) 3  3 Potassium feldspar 8 (Na,Ca)AlSi O  6.5 6 4 Garnet