Policy Paradox - The Art of Political Decision Making Chapter 7

Outline for Policy Paradox CH.6: Symbols   Symbolic representation is the essence of problem definition in politics. A symbol “is anything that stands for something else,” and that meaning is collectively created.  Symbols shape our perceptions and are thus a means of influence and control, as well as political devices.  There are four types of symbolic representation that are especially important in the definition of policy problems: I. Narrative Stories  Tell how the world works and provide a promise of resolution for scary problems. o Policy problems are similar to stories in that they: have a beginning, middle, and end, have heroes, villains, and innocent victims, and often pose evil vs. good. o In policy making, what appears as conflict over details, is really disagreement abut the fundamental story. o The most common types of stories used in policy are: 1. Stories of Decline  Basis: “In the beginning, things were pretty good. But then they got worse. In fact, right now, they are nearly intolerable. Something must be done.”  Exemplifies a crisis situation and warns unless this is done…disaster will follow. It is a prediction of doom (Very Common). A. Stories of Hindered Progress  Basis: “In the beginning things were terrible. Then things got better, thanks to a certain someone. But now somebody or something is interfering with our hero, so things are going to get terrible again.”  This is often told by every group that wants to resist regulation.  Ex. When the AMA was fighting government cost-containment efforts, they reminded people about the days of plagues, TB, high infant mortality, etc. and warned that new government restrictions would undo all the progress that had been made. B. Stories of “Change is only an Illusion”  Basis: “You always thought things were getting worse (or better). But you were wrong. Let me show you some evidence that things are in fact going in the opposite direction. Decline (or improvement) was simply all an illusion.”  Ex. Violence and corruption throughout the world are not really on the rise. They only appear to have increased because we have more public awareness, more legislation, and more reporting in the media of these topics. 2. Stories of Helplessness and Control Basis: “The situation is bad. We have always believed that the situation was out of our control, something we had to accept but could not influence. Now, however, let me show you that in fact we can control things.”  Stories about control serve to speak to the fundamental problem of liberty in this country, mainly, they force us to ask questions regarding to what extent do we actually control our own life conditions and destinies?  Politicians use this because what had formerly been viewed as random, accidental, natural, or a twist of fate, is now alleged to be amenable to change due to human agents of intervention. These stories often provide heroes. A. Stories of Conspiracy  Basis: Its plot moves us from the realm of fate to the realm of control, but it claims to show that control thus far has been in the hands of a few who have used it to their benefit.  These stories always reveal that harm has been deliberately caused or knowingly tolerated, and they end with a call to wrest control from the few who benefit at the expense of many.  Ex. Oil companies. B. Stories that Blame the Victim  Basis: It also moves us from the realm of fate to the realm of control, but locates control in the very people who suffer the problem.  This story often ends with victims having to reform their own faulty behavior.  Ex. The poor are poor because they seek instant pleasures instead of using their time to work hard and invest their money efficiently. Overall, policy stories use many literary devices to lead the audience to a course of action and people must be aware of these tactics in order to be able to make somewhat thoughtful choices and decisions.  II. Synecdoches  These are figures of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole.  In politics, such symbolism is very common, where certain examples are offered up as typical instances of a larger problem.  We often make policies based on examples believed to be representative of a larger universe.  Politicians or interest groups often use “Horror Stories,” where they deliberately choose one outlandish incident to represent the universe of cases, and then use that example to build support for changing an entire rule or policy. o Ex. Why do women get half of all assets in a divorce void of a prenuptial agreement? This rule was fashioned on the assumption that the woman in a household spends her married years as a housewife and mother, and as such, had no economic assets of her own to claim in a divorce.  1. 2. 3. 4. The strategy of focusing on part of a problem is likely to lead to skewed policy, but it is often politically useful because it takes a larger issue and presents a single, more manageable chunk for the public to identify with. o Ex. A plea all over the news to find one missing, abused, or starving child within a region, makes the public aware and sympathetic to other children in a similar situation. III. Metaphors  Are sometimes held to be the essential core of human thought and creativity.  In policy, they are a likeness asserted between one kind of policy problem and another.  The author describes these specific types of policy metaphors: Living Organisms A. With this metaphor, communities or groups are said to have a “life of their own” and organizations have “goals”. B. Ex. “Industry is being strangled,” serves to personify industry. C. When anything in politics is described as “fragmented,” the perception is that it is broken. Policy metaphors often jump from “description to prescription.” D. A natural life cycle is also used to explain why political issues seem to experience periods of rapid growth and then decline. E. In a culture where the common understanding is treating likes alike, to claim a likeness through a political metaphor is also to posit an interpretation of equity, and demand equal treatment of certain agencies, etc. Natural Laws A. In policy, this contributes to the belief that providing monetary assistance to those who have problems like, poverty, homelessness, drug addiction, etc., actually rewards them for having the problem and creates an incentive for them to remain in their current condition. Machines and Mechanical Devices A. Our Constitution is derived from 18th century political thoughts that rest on a notion that the political system is a machine with working parts that have to be kept “in order” and “in balance”. B. Thus, “checks and balances” are central to our way of thinking about how political power should be allocated. C. Policy prescriptions become the addition of something to one side or subtraction from the other. D. Ex. With nuclear weapons, strategists talk of a “balance of terror,” where mutual fear prevents either side from acting. Wedges and Inclines A. Government regulation is often portrayed as a wedge: once they get their foot in the door... B. The image of the wedge suggests that a seemingly small beginning can have enormous leverage. C. As for inclines, the metaphor is of one ascending a ladder, compelled rung by rung, even though it gets scarier step by step, and despite the fact that perhaps escalating further goes against one’s better judgment. D. Slippery slope arguments meanwhile begin by acknowledging that a law for example is not in itself bad, but permitting the phenomenon would eventually lead to badness. E. Ex. Allowing physicians to pursue pleas for assisted suicide in certain cases… 5. Containers A. This is the idea of a fixed space. B. The problem might be that a space is overfilled, thus Mexican workers “spill over” the borders into the United States. C. Or, one can “drain off” some of the contents of the container, and allow a gradual release of pressure by letting angry citizens “blow off steam.” 6. Disease A. In the policy realm, cults, crime, or any other condemned behavior is often said to “spread,” with such people viewed as contagious. Members and advocates are basically said to “infect” others with their ideas. B. Ex. Teenage pregnancy and high school dropout rates are viewed as an “epidemic”. C. The disease label discredits opponents and implies a moral rightness of treating them as less than human. D. The psychiatry profession has further facilitated such treatment in the political realm, by converting many social problems into mental disorders. As such, consistent unemployment and repeated absences from work are classified as “anti-social personality disorder,” meaning that those people are in fact sick, not simply unhappy. 7. War A. We declare war on many issues (such as drugs) because when something is portrayed as an invasion, the invader is foreign, and therefore not something whose rights have to be respected. B. When people are at war, survival is at stake, so costs are often ignored and one is viewed as a traitor if he or she does not support the effort. This is one obvious reason why this tactic is so often used by leaders to carry out policies. Overall, names and labels are used to create associations that lend legitimacy and attract support to a course of action. What is a “gas tax” to one person is a “user fee” to another. Symbolic devices are especially persuasive and emotionally compelling because their story line is often hidden. IV. Ambiguity  The capacity to have multiple meanings.  A symbol can mean two (or more) things simultaneously: “religious freedom” means organized vocal prayer in public schools to some people and absolutely no prayer in public schools to others.  Ambiguity is the “glue” of politics. It allows people to agree on laws and policies because they can read different meanings into the words. Without it, cooperation and compromise would be far more difficult. o Ex. Ambiguity can unite people who would benefit from the same policy but for different reasons. Some groups do not want to see the construction of more homes because they want to preserve nature, while others simply do not want to see the value of their own homes reduced.  It allows leaders to aggregate support from different quarters for a single policy.  It allows policy makers to placate both sides in a conflict by “giving the rhetoric to one side and the decision to the other”.  Legislators can satisfy demands to do something about a problem by passing a vague statue with ambiguous meaning and then letting administrative agencies hash out the more conflicting details.  By portraying a decision one way in the press yet executing it another, political leaders can perform the magic trick of making two decisions at once and keeping the peace so that two sides can technically claim victory. Overall, problems are not out there in the world waiting for smart analysts to come and define them, they are created in the mind of citizens by other citizens, leaders, organizations, and government agencies as an essential part of political maneuvering. Policy stories are tools of strategy with symbols, metaphors, ambiguities, etc., all as weapons in the arsenal of manipulation. Policy Paradox Chapter 7 Numbers “One common way to define a policy problem is to measure it.” (Stone, 2002) One common way to begin a discussion about a policy is to define the problem and need according to trends. If a problem is big enough by the numbers, policy efforts gain instant credibility. One example of this can be seen with the problem of obesity. In the State of Nevada and almost every other state, legislators have begun to take a look at obesity trends and are formulating state policies and programs to help reduce the prevalence of obesity. One of the first steps in our state was the formation of a task force to examine the Cost of Obesity. The task force produced a report to demonstrate how costly obesity has become to all people in our state regardless of health status. Using the report from the task force, legislators had enough momentum to pass Nevada State Senate Bill 197. The outcome of this bill was the formation of the Advisory Council for the State Program on Fitness and Wellness which is comprised of professionals from a variety of backgrounds. The Council is to make recommendations on how our State Program for Fitness and Wellness should operate. Inevitably the Advisory Council will go right back to the numbers to accomplish this goal. The challenge for policy makers is to determine the best way to represent the problem with numbers. This is challenging because there are an infinite number of ways to describe something with numbers. The manner for using numbers to describe the problem will depend on the purpose of the policy analysis. Inclusion versus exclusion One critical issue in using numbers to describe a problem is inclusion versus exclusion. This is the process by which we determine that something counts and another does not. When numbers are used to describe a problem something will be left out. The manner by which the problem is reported becomes very political. How doe we determine who to leave out? Someone will always be unhappy? Numbers as Metaphors Counting numbers as metaphors is to focus on what counts and leave out everything else. In obesity, we have a baseline measure called body mass index (BMI). According to the CDC, “BMI is used because for most people, it correlates with their amount of body fat. So, an adult with a BMI between 25 and 29.9 is considered overweight and an adult who has a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese.” There are inherent problems when numbers are used as metaphors. What is obese and what is not obese will be challenged. It is possible to have a BMI less than the critical cut-off and be too fat. It is also possible to have a BMI greater than the critical cut-off and be completely healthy. So, one issue is where the boundary lies for what is and what is not. Numbers as norms and symbols Measures imply a need for action. Typically, the first step in promoting change is to measure the problem. Reporting the numbers creates pressure to change. The numbers become a norm. Norms help establish helplessness or lack of control of the issue. There are often problems in using numbers as norms and symbols. Often the numbers are ambiguous. Measures often have double meaning. Good in one arena bad in another. So, how the measure is interpreted is very important. Cost is an example of a double edged sword. Few would argue that health care in America is costly. The numbers speak for themselves. For many the high cost may be a sign of high quality. However, for others it is better to pay less for more. One great example of this is seen in the prescription drug industry. In many states there is little regulation to prevent pharmacies from raising prices on the prescription drugs they fill. The problem is that prices are inconsistent. What may cost $40 at one pharmacy may cost over $200 at another. Legislation is increasing to help stop the mark-up to the buyer and curb the income of the seller. Efficiency and productivity can also be ‘double edged swords.’ This is evident in health care when increasing efficiency and productivity may be seen as positive to insurance companies, but negative to the consumer who requires quality care. When it comes to numbers, politicians tend to like the middle or at the average and prefer to avoid extremes. The ambiguity of the middle ground is a safe place compared to the extreme ends where votes may be easily won and easily lost. Hidden Stories in Numbers Numbers tell a story, of decline and decay or bigger and worse. The goal is to create a sense of helplessness and control. Typically, the numbers are used to tell the story and the deception lies in the fact that they don’t lie, or do they? Characteristically, numbers can be explicit. More importantly, numbers can be very implicit too. If something counts, it must be important right? People tend to use counting and measure of something to verify the problem is worth looking at. When something “counts” the assertion is made that “it” is identifiable with clear boundaries. One example of this is seen in education where there is great debate over accountability. Test scores have become the outcome measure for schools to demonstrate they are accountable for student progress, improvement, and achievement. There is great argument related to this stemming from the validity and reliability of the measures of aptitude and achievement. When we begin to count a trait we begin to create a community of “like.” The problem with this lies in the distinction of what counts and what does not. The boundary between what is and what is not may be very fuzzy. In policy counting mobilizes efforts. We promise conflict resolution via arithmetic and can manipulate what we measure by adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. This is contradictory to the nature of exactness appreciated in science where numbers are seen as symbols of objectivity, precision, and accuracy. Counting is political 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. include versus exclude implies norms of how much is too little too much ambiguity tell stories illusion that complex is simple create communities aid negotiation and compromise bolster authority of those that count Numerical strategies 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. people react to being counted counting makes people notice stimulate public demands for change explicit measure to evaluate and people will try to manipulate scores power of measure is power of control creates alliances between measured and measures Policy Paradox Chapter 7 Numbers Define a Policy Problem by measuring it but there are infinite ways to do so with numbers Ex: Literature describes with words Ex: Painting with pigments Most determine the purpose for the measuring Fundamental issues of any policy conflict are always contained in the question of how to count the problem Ex: Unemployment rate = designed as the measure of people wanting work or the need for jobs. The official method of counting unemployment is the official definition of the problem leaves out people who fit somebody’s notion of unemployed but not the official notion Official Definition Older than 16 Have previously held a job Are available for work Have looked for work within the previous four weeks Also Unemployed Unwilling to take avail. jobs dangerous unpleasant demeaning Can only find part-time when Want full-time Quit a job to look for Something better Can’t work due to child care Worker’s strike Counting always involves deliberate decisions about counting as Must begin with categorization What include and exclude Important characteristics and asking whether the object to be classified is substantially like the others in the category Establishment of boundaries in the form of rules or criteria Only after characterizing does mere tallying come into play Really political terms Inclusion/exclusion – suggest community, boundaries, allies, enemies Selection – privilege and discrimination Important characteristics – value judgment and hierarchy Goals of public policy need the language of counting Number as Metaphors Numbers work exactly like metaphors To categorize in counting or analogize in metaphors is to select one feature of something, assert a likeness on the basis of that feature and ignore all the other features To count is to form a category by emphasizing some feature instead of the others and excluding things that might be similar in important ways but do not share the same feature. Ex: actively looked for work in the past 4 weeks = unemployment but desperately wanting work but not “pavement pounding” does not equal unemployment Two Challenges due to the judgment of inclusion and exclusion 1) The assertion of a real likeness where the measure finds a difference, and insists on inclusion of something the measure excludes. Ex: unemployment rate included “discouraged workers” and “underemployed workers” or how to count the homeless – just those who sleep on the streets or shelters, vs. prison, detox centers, mental institutions, who would have no home if released Important definitions because they determine who will get benefits, loans, contracts, budget increases, jobs, fines, and penalties 2) Sometime arbitrary by setting a cutoff point or threshold or threshold on a numerical scale ex: LSAT for law school admissions, income level for welfare, drinking and voting rights Assertion of a real difference where a measure finds a likeness and insists on exclusion of something the measure includes Ex: Health care facility need was defined by primarily by the ratio of hospital beds to population of the community however it the definition of “bed” was not consistent, it did not account for the number of staff, nor proximity to general population Though debate about final counts seems to be about the tally, it can be argued they are really about the categorization. Numbers are invoked to give an air of finality to each side’s opinions Every number is an assertion about similarities and differences. You can’t count without making judgments about categorization and similarities and differences are the ultimate basis for decisions in public policy Numbers as Norms and Symbols Numbers make normative leaps. Measures imply a need for action because we do not measure things except when we want to change them or change our behavior in response to them. Call for a measurement = first step in promoting change Ex: Unemployment figures as force in politics – to use the numbers to put pressure on the administration to create new jobs Not only for pressure, but some level of the measure will become the norm Norms – part of the story of helplessness and control / Control and failure: unemployment rate, prime interest rate, inflation rate, size of the budget, the GNP, and the deficit Double edged swords – it is good to be high on the measure but low is also good Symbols – savings symbolizes both thrift and past waste so it matters more is how the measure is interpreted Cost – ideology of efficiency is that it is better to pay less for something than more. However, high cost is sometime a symbol of high quality or prestige. Cost becomes a proxy measure for prestige Reformers see the waste side of cost and People in the system see the quality side and symbolic benefits of high cost Cost to buyers is income to sellers Costs are always income to somebody else, so there is always a constituency for high costs to battle the low costs. Efficiency - getting the most output for a given input Productivity – output per hour of labor Generally think the more efficiency and productivity the better – however high output can symbolize both perfunctory work and a job well done. Efficiency is not always a virtue where the output is personal attention or custom designs. Middles and Averages ex. Middle class - most people think of themselves as middleclass even when they fall substantially above or below the median However is the option of working class is added about 45% will choose this and feel alienated by tax breaks aimed at middle-class The Political middle class not the same as economic middle class so hard to write a tax plan to please both Hidden Stories in Numbers To Count something at all is to assert that phenomenon is at least frequent enough to bother counting Initial demands to count something formally grow from recognition that the thing is common enough to worry about – Common, regular, and expected even to show how rare the phenomenon is. Moves an event from the singular to the plural To count is to assert that it is an identifiable entity with clear boundaries. You can’t count something you can’t distinguish Is the phenomenon measurable at all? If yes, is it too inclusive or exclusive? To count is to create a community. Any number is implicitly an assertion that things counted in it share a common feature that should be treated as a group. Natural communities – or primary groups – people who actually interact regardless of whether they are counted ex: population of a village, size of a family, or size of a school Artificial communities – or statistical groups – lump together people who have no relationship other than the shared characteristic that determined the count. Ex; age groups, income classes Sometimes the distinction between artificial and natural communities is fuzzy Because these groups are created, counting is an essential instrument of political mobilization To count is the promise of Conflict Resolution through arithmetic. The common wisdom among negotiators is that irreconcilable demands can be handled by breaking them up into smaller components and trading the parts off against each other. Ex: like pregnancy in the abortion debate Once a phenomenon has been converted into quantifiable units, it can be added, multiplied, divided, or subtracted, even though operations have little meaning in reality Numbers force a common denominator where there is none. Why Counting is Political 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Counting requires decisions about categorizing, about what (or whom) to include and exclude Measuring any phenomenon implicitly creates norms about how much is too little, too much, or just right Numbers can be ambiguous, and so leave room for political struggles to control their interpretation Numbers are used to tell stories such as stories of decline Numbers can create the illusion that a very complex and ambiguous phenomenon is simple, countable and precisely defined Numbers can create political communities out of people who share some trait that can be counted Counting can aid negotiation and compromise, by making intangible qualities seem divisible Numbers, by seeming to be so precise, help bolster the authority of those who count Making Numbers in the Polis Numbers in politics are measures of human activities, by human beings, and intended to influence human behavior. They are subject to conscious and unconscious manipulation by the people being measured, the people making the measurements, and the people who will interpret and uses the measures made by others. Numerical Strategies in Problem Definition 1. People react to being counted or measured, and try to “look good” on the measure 2. The process of counting something makes people notice it more, and record keeping stimulates reporting 3. Counting can be used to stimulate public demands for change 4. When the measurement is explicitly used to evaluate performance, the people being evaluated try to manipulate their “scores” 5. The power to measure is the power to control. Measures have a lot of discretion in their choice of what and how to measure 6. Measuring creates alliances between the measurers and the measured 7. Numbers don’t speak for themselves, and people try to control how others will interpret numbers. Numbers are always descriptions of the world, and as descriptions, they are no more real than the visions of poems or paintings. Their vision of experience may correspond more or less with popular visions, just as a realist, impressionist, and abstract expressionist paintings correspond more or less with common visions. Numbers are real as artifacts. But the dominance of numbers as a mode of describing society in public policy discussions is only recent, and perhaps temporary, phenomenon in cultural history – not the result of some underlying reality of numbers.