NATs 1745: Midterm Exam Review - Chapters 3-4

‭EXAM REVIEW Chapters 3-4‬ ‭Chapter 3:‬ I‭dentify the features of the ancient Greek empire that made it possible for theories‬ ‭about natural science to progress further than in other ancient civilizations.‬ ‭●‬ S ‭ cientific thought emerged in Ancient Greece owing to the region's fragmented‬ ‭geography and decentralized rule‬ ‭Differentiate between a geocentric and heliocentric cosmology.‬ ‭ eocentric Theory:‬‭The Belief that all celestial bodies‬‭revolve around a fixed Earth.‬ G ‭Heliocentric Theory:‬‭The Belief that all the celestial‬‭bodies (including earth) orbit around‬ ‭the Sun‬ ‭ or each of the Ancient Greek philosophers discussed in this lesson, identify whether‬ F ‭they subscribed to a geocentric or heliocentric model and, if known, explain the‬ ‭observations that led to their chosen model.‬ ‭Heliocentrism:‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Philolaus‬‭- “Daily motion of the explains how celestial‬‭bodies rise”‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Herakleides‬‭“Earth spins daily to explain the east-to-west‬‭motion of celestial bodies.”‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Aristarchus‬‭“ The angle between the Sun and Moon during‬‭a half moon phase‬ ‭Geocentrism:‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Plato‬‭“Consistent circular motion observed in the‬‭sky, Notion of perfection”‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Eudoxus‬‭“NA”‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Aristotle‬‭“Arrow shot straight up returns to starting‬‭point supported a fixed earth”‬ ‭4.‬ ‭Apollonius‬‭“ Observed planet quirks, devised the concept‬‭of epicycles”‬ ‭5.‬ ‭Hipparchus‬‭“Observation of the precession of the equinoxes‬‭led him to refine this‬ ‭model”‬ ‭6.‬ ‭Ptolemy‬‭“NA”‬ ‭ escribe the main features of each of the cosmological models discussed in this‬ D ‭lesson and apply their features to explain the motion of the Sun, Moon and stars.‬ ‭***‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Ionian Model:‬‭Earth as a flat disk or floating with‬‭celestial bodies spinning around it.‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Pythagorean Model:‬‭Universe as a harmonious cosmos‬‭with Earth as a sphere and‬ ‭circular celestial motions.‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Heliocentric Models:‬‭Earth moves around a "central‬‭fire" or rotates; Aristarchus‬ ‭proposed heliocentric model.‬ ‭4.‬ ‭Platonic and Eudoxian Model:‬‭Celestial bodies move‬‭in perfect spheres with‬ ‭constant circular motion; nested spheres to explain motion.‬ ‭5.‬ ‭Aristotelian Model:‬‭Geocentric with Earth at the center,‬‭celestial bodies move in‬ ‭eternal spheres.‬ ‭6.‬ ‭Apollonian Model:‬‭Epicycle model explains retrograde motion and varying speeds.‬ ‭7.‬ ‭Hipparchian Model:‬‭Precession of equinoxes discovered;‬‭star catalog compiled.‬ ‭8.‬ P ‭ tolemaic Model:‬‭Geocentric with epicycles and equants to account for observed‬ ‭planetary motions.‬ ‭Explain why Thales became known as the "Father of Science"‬ ‭●‬ ‭sought explanations for natural phenomena that didn't involve gods. Gained support‬ ‭for predicting natural events.‬ ‭ xplain how the Pythagorean concept of a "cosmos" differed from previous notions‬ E ‭about the Universe.‬ ‭-‬ ‭The Universe is a cosmos (ie, a‬‭harmonious‬‭system that obeys knowable‬ ‭mathematical laws) rather than unpredictable forces‬ ‭ tate the Pythagorean hypothesis about the shape of the Earth and describe the‬ S ‭observations that support this.‬ ‭●‬ ‭The Earth is a sphere & all celestial motion is perfectly circular‬ ‭Evidence that Earth is a sphere:‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Gradual bottom-first disappearance of ships on horizon‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Earth's round shadow on the eclipsed moon‬ ‭3.‬ ‭when traveling, constellations shift more rapidly than if Earth were flat‬ ‭ xplain how Plato’s beliefs about the scientific method and the celestial bodies‬ E ‭directed the objectives of the next generations of ancient Greek philosophers of‬ ‭natural science.‬ ‭‬ a ● ‭ dvocated accepting theories of nature on faith.‬ ‭●‬ ‭He proposed that all celestial bodies move in perfect spheres with constant circular‬ ‭motion (CCM).‬ ‭ escribe Aristotle’s theories about motion and the composition of matter in the‬ D ‭terrestrial realm in comparison to the celestial realm.‬ ‭Terrestrial realm:‬‭Governed by the four elements,‬‭earth, water, air, and fire, causing motion‬ ‭based on their natural tendencies.‬ ‭ elestial realm:‬‭Celestial bodies are perfect spheres‬‭composed of imperishable‬ C ‭quintessence, moving in eternal circular orbits driven by the prime mover, with Earth‬ ‭considered fixed at the universe's center.‬ ‭ escribe how the motion and appearance of the planets change throughout their‬ D ‭cycles and explain how the planetary models discussed in this lesson account for‬ ‭these changes.‬ ‭Features of apparent planetary motion:‬ ‭●‬ ‭both direct (forward) and retrograde (backward) motion‬ ‭●‬ ‭changing apparent speeds and brightness‬ ‭How the models account:‬ ‭‬ G ● ‭ eocentric Models explain planetary motion using epicycles and deferents.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Heliocentric Models describe planets orbiting the Sun to account for their changing‬ ‭positions and brightness from Earth's viewpoint.‬ ‭ ifferentiate between the appearance of the motion of the inner vs the outer planets‬ D ‭and identify which of the planetary models discussed in this lesson account for this‬ ‭difference and how it is explained by each model‬ I‭nner planets‬‭show both direct and retrograde motion,‬‭with relatively swift movement.‬ ‭Outer planets‬‭also display direct and retrograde motion but with a slower and more gradual‬ ‭appearance.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Displayed in the Ptolemaic model‬ ‭ escribe the Antikythera Mechanism and the Farnese statue and explain how their‬ D ‭origins were determined‬ ‭ ntikythera Mechanism:‬‭Complex system, circular gears.‬‭Device to simulate the motion of‬ A ‭the celestial bodies based on Hipparchus model.‬ ‭ arnese statue:‬‭Atlas holding an accurate celestial‬‭sphere with carved constellations. Was‬ F ‭Hipparchus's ancient star catalog.‬ ‭Differentiate between a sidereal year and a solar year and use these concepts to‬ ‭ xplain Hipparchus’ discovery of the precession of the equinoxes.‬ e ‭ sidereal year:‬‭measures Earth's orbit against the‬‭fixed stars, approximately 365.25 days‬ A ‭A solar year:‬‭tracks Earth's orbit relative to the‬‭Sun and seasons, around 365.24‬ ‭These concepts explain Hipparchus’ discovery of the precession of the equinoxes‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Shifts the Sun's coordinates by ~0.01% yearly.‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Shifts star coordinates eastward, leading to the loss of our Pole star.‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Enables precise Sun and star position calculations for navigation and calendars, as‬ ‭seen in Stonehenge and Hipparchus' catalog.‬ ‭ ccount for the origin of the name of the definitive Astronomy textbook written by‬ A ‭Ptolemy in roughly 150 AD.‬ ‭ tolemy's definitive Book:‬‭"The Almagest," is derived‬‭from the Arabic title "Al-Majisti,"‬ P ‭which means "The Greatest.‬ ‭Identify the features of the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion which violated‬ ‭ ristotelian principles and explain why, despite these discrepancies, the Ptolemaic‬ A ‭model became widely accepted.‬ ‭Ptolemaic Model Contradicted Aristotelian Principles:‬ ‭●‬ ‭Epicycles and equant points contradicted Aristotelian principles of uniform circular‬ ‭motion and Earth's central position.‬ ‭●‬ D ‭ iffering planetary motions directed by the Sun also challenged Aristotelian‬ ‭concepts.‬ ‭ xplain the reasons why Ptolemy’s measurement of the size of the known Universe‬ E ‭was an underestimate and provide an argument for the importance of the‬ ‭measurement despite its incorrect assumptions.‬ ‭ tolemy's measurement was the first revelation of the enormity of space,‬ P ‭demonstrating to ancient Greeks that Earth is just a speck in the vast cosmos.‬ ‭_________________________________________________________________________‬ ‭Chapter 4:‬ ‭ ompare the astronomical knowledge of the Dark Ages in Europe to the Ancient‬ C ‭Greek period and account for the change.‬ ‭Dark Ages (5th-7th C):‬‭Church-state merger led to‬‭a decline in science‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ancient Greek theories were rejected as contrary to Scripture‬ ‭-‬ ‭Loss of Ancient Greek texts (Latin became the official language of scholarship)‬ ‭ xplain how the astronomical knowledge acquired by the Ancient Greek philosophers‬ E ‭was preserved throughout the Dark Ages outside of Europe, and the important role‬ ‭The Almagest played in enabling the re-emergence of astronomical knowledge in‬ ‭Europe.‬ ‭Ancient Greek astronomical knowledge was perserved by the rise of the Islamic religion.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Interactions between Islamic scholars & Greek refugees led to translations of‬ ‭Creek texts into Arabic (eg. The Almagest)‬ ‭ ompare the different naming conventions of the Ancient Greek and Arabic‬ C ‭astronomers and cite some examples of each.‬ ‭●‬ G ‭ reek star catalogs were translated using Arabic names and descriptions which‬ ‭persisted into modern times. Such as ‘Beta’ to ‘The foot of the great one’ (Rigel).‬ ‭Describe the cosmology adopted by the medieval Church.‬ ‭-‬ ‭ he Latin translation of The Almagest by Regiomontanus led Christian scholars to‬ T ‭adopt Aristotelian-Ptolemaic cosmology due to its consistency with Scripture‬ ‭ escribe the thought experiment regarding motion on Earth by the French‬ D ‭philosopher Jean Buridan and explain its role in the Copernican revolution.‬ ‭ ean Buridan:‬‭Proposed new theory of motion- theorized‬‭that thrown/projected objects have‬ J ‭impetus‬‭(in addition to their natural motion towards‬‭Earth) therefore, if the Earth moves,‬ ‭projected objects inherit Earth's impetus. This theory played a role in the Copernican‬ ‭revolution by challenging the prevailing Aristotelian physics. (Arrow)‬ ‭Describe the Copernican model:‬ ‭●‬ C ‭ opernican model by Nicolaus Copernicus (16th C):‬‭heliocentric view with the‬ ‭Sun at the center.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Ptolemaic model (prevailing):‬‭geocentric with Earth‬‭at the center, complex with‬ ‭epicycles to explain retrograde motion.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Copernicus' correct order of planets:‬‭Mercury, Venus,‬‭Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Copernicus convinced by retrograde motion, simpler explanation with Earth and‬ ‭planets orbiting the Sun.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Copernican model accounts for daily sky motion, annual cycle of the Sun, precession‬ ‭of equinoxes, retrograde motion, brightness changes, and speed changes of planets.‬ ‭ tate the author and general contents of the book De Revolutionibus, including the‬ S ‭purpose served by its preface in the years following the book’s publication‬ ‭ he book De Revolutionibus author was Nicolaus Copernicus:‬‭For the next ½ C,‬ T ‭Copernican and Ptolemaic models were the two leading models of planetary motion.‬ ‭ tate the two rare celestial events witnessed by Tycho Brahe in the 1560s and 1570s‬ S ‭and describe how they appeared in the sky as well as the role each event played in‬ ‭the direction of Tycho’s research.‬ ‭ ycho Brahe in 1560s and 1570s observed that supernovae‬‭remain fixed relative to the‬ T ‭stars (therefore, the star realm is not eternally unchanging)‬ I‭dentify the historical importance of the island of Hven to Tycho’s contribution to our‬ ‭understanding of planetary motion.‬ I‭sland of Hven‬‭was where the most accurate pre-telescopic‬‭record of planetary coordinates‬ ‭was taken by Tycho.‬ ‭Define the astronomical unit and state its value in kilometres. ***‬ ‭ stronomical unit:‬‭It is the average distance between‬‭the Earth and the Sun. 1 AU = 150‬ A ‭Million KM‬ ‭ efine the concept of parallax and provide examples of how it affects our view, both‬ D ‭on Earth and in space, and apply this knowledge to explain the ways in which parallax‬ ‭influenced Tycho’s theories about our planetary system.‬ ‭ arallax:‬‭perceived shift of an object relative to‬‭its background due to the observer's motion‬ P ‭E.G‬‭. A lamppost appears in different positions relative‬‭to the background when viewed from‬ ‭two different locations due to your movement.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Tycho Brahe saw no shifting of stars, suggesting Earth must be fixed, shaping ideas‬ ‭for heliocentrism.‬ ‭ escribe the Tychonic system and explain how the model accounts for the various‬ D ‭cycles of the sky discussed in this lesson.‬ ‭Tychonic System:‬ ‭●‬ ‭Earth fixed at the center (geocentric)‬ ‭●‬ ‭The sun, Moon, and stars orbit Earth‬ ‭●‬ ‭planets orbit the Sun (heliocentric)‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth's rotation explains daily sky motion, the Sun's orbit around Earth accounts for‬ ‭the yearly cycle, and planets orbiting the Sun explain retrograde motion.‬ ‭ escribe the planetary model published by Kepler in the book Cosmographic Mystery‬ D ‭and explain how Kepler arrived at this model, why he became convinced it was‬ ‭correct, and the importance of the model to the search for the correct model of our‬ ‭planetary system.‬ ‭ lanetary model in the book‬‭Cosmographic Mystery‬‭:‬‭Kepler proposed that the 5 Perfect‬ P ‭Solids define the 5 spaces between the 6 planets‬ ‭●‬ ‭Kepler came up with his planetary model by studying the planets' movements, trying‬ ‭different shapes, and fitting the orbits into nested solid shapes called Platonic solids.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Kepler's heliocentrism was strengthened by the consistency between the Perfect‬ ‭Solids model & Copernican distances to planets‬ I‭dentify the role of the book On The Magnet in influencing Kepler’s theory about‬ ‭planetary motion.‬ ‭ ilbert's book "On The Magnet”:‬‭Kepler proposed that‬‭if celestial bodies were magnetic,‬ G ‭the Sun's magnetic force could explain planetary motion, using Tycho Brahe's data to‬ ‭support his heliocentric model.‬ ‭Describe how Tycho Brahe and Kepler encountered each other as well as the work‬ t‭ hey did together and their conflicting scientific goals.‬ ‭●‬ T ‭ ycho hired Kepler to prove the accuracy of Tychonic System. Kepler hoped to prove‬ ‭heliocentric model. Tycho hoped to prove geocentric model.‬ ‭Define the concepts of the semimajor axis, eccentricity, perihelion and aphelion‬ ‭ emimajor axis:‬‭The average distance between a planet‬‭and the Sun, half of the longest‬ S ‭width of its elliptical orbit.‬ ‭Eccentricity:‬‭The elongation of ellipse‬ ‭Perihelion:‬‭Planets make its closest approach to the‬‭sun. Fastest.‬ ‭Aphelion:‬‭Furthest point planet is away from the sun.‬‭Slowest.‬ ‭ tate and explain Kepler’s 3 laws of planetary motion as well as the observation that‬ S ‭led Kepler to discover each law.‬ ‭Keplers 3 laws:‬ ‭●‬ ‭1st Law: planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one focus‬ ‭-‬ ‭the more elongated the ellipse, the greater its eccentricity‬ ‭-‬ ‭a circle is an ellipse with zero eccentricity‬ ‭●‬ ‭2nd Law:‬‭A planet's speed varies as it moves around its orbit; it moves fastest at‬ ‭perihelion and slowest at aphelion‬ ‭●‬ ‭3rd Law:‬‭A mathematical relationship between a planet's‬‭orbital radius and orbital‬ ‭period‬ ‭-‬ ‭the further a planet from the Sun, the slower its orbit‬ ‭ pply your knowledge of Kepler’s laws to compare Earth’s orbital motion orbital‬ A ‭motion of another planet with a different semimajor axis and eccentricity.‬ ‭‬ B ● ‭ oth Earth and Mars orbit the Sun in elliptical paths, following Kepler's first law.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Earth's orbit is less elongated (lower eccentricity) compared to Mars'.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Kepler's second law states that planets move faster at perihelion (closest to the Sun)‬ ‭and slower at aphelion (farthest from the Sun), applicable to both Earth and Mars.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Kepler's third law establishes a relationship between a planet's orbital radius‬ ‭(semimajor axis) and its orbital period (time taken to complete one orbit). Mars, with a‬ ‭longer semimajor axis, has a longer orbital period than Earth.‬ ‭Describe the importance of Kepler’s book, The Rudolphine Tables, published in 1627.‬ ‭ udolphine Tables:‬‭Kepler's tables of planetary coordinates,‬‭derived from his laws (most‬ R ‭accurate tables to date)‬