‘Conservatism’, as a distinct ideology, arose in the early nineteenth century as a body of thought that was opposed to the values and ideals of the French Revolution. Conservatism is suspicious and resistant to political, social, and economic change, supports traditional ways of doing things, has a generally negative view of human nature – seen as fundamentally imperfect – and wants to maintain an organic society. As while other ideologies preached reform and revolution, conservatism stood in defense of an increasingly embattled traditional social order. Traditional conservatives see distinctions between people and a hierarchical structure of society as natural and inevitable. They support the traditional social order. However, modern conservatives of the ‘New Right’ reject many of the tenets of conservatism and support a view of society, which has more in common with classical liberalism than conservatism.
Conservatism has never been a single doctrine and varied widely across Europe and America. The triggers for the development of modern Conservatism were:
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The French Revolution and its Enlightenment values of rationalism, liberty, rights, etc. Conservatives reacted against this, in defense of the old social and political order. A founding text of modern conservatism in England was Edmund Burke’s ‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’ (1792). Burke argued that society was like a social organism that had taken centuries to evolve, and that the French revolutionaries were destroying the accumulated wisdom of many generations in the name of abstract ideals and the application of reason. Traditional (Burkean) conservativism defends the status quo and the established order of things against radical or revolutionary change. Society is not like a machine that can be taken apart and reassembled. It is more like a living creature. It is complex and interconnected, and changing any part of it can have consequences for the entire organism. A well-organized society is the product of centuries. It is built out of institutions, which have stood the test of time: the family, church, private property, etc. All members of the community are bound together in an organic whole and sustained by custom and tradition. Each member knows his role and place and society works best when each carries out the duties associated with his/her role and does not try to usurp them. This produces an orderly, hierarchical, and stable society.
However, Burke believed that gradual, prudent change, was necessary; ‘” to change in order to conserve”. Changes should be made on the basis of experience by men of wisdom and good judgment rather than on the basis of theories or abstract concepts such as human rights. The aim should be to make pragmatic decisions that result in changes that work.
Elsewhere in Europe, many conservatives rejected all change, which led to the revolutions of 1848. Conservatives sought to conserve the old social and economic order against the economic and social changes
Conservatives value and defend tradition for a number of reasons it being a core theme throughout the ‘ideology’. Some Conservatives believe on religious grounds that traditional customs and practices are ‘God gave’ (e.g. homosexuality is wrong, a marriage must be between a man and a woman, etc.) However, today these arguments are mainly only made by religious fundamentalists. Burke (1729-1997) argued that the living generation is in a ‘partnership’ with previous dead generations, and those which are yet to be born. In support of this, G.K.Chesterton (1874-1936) called tradition a “democracy of the dead”. In this view, tradition reflects the accumulated wisdom of past (dead) generations. The practices and institutions which exist today have been ‘tested by the time’ – those which have survived have done so because they worked.
Another core theme is conservatism is the belief in human imperfection. Conservatives argue that human beings are naturally imperfect and imperfectible creatures, and recognition of this should be the foundation of political and social institutions. This is a major difference from Socialism as those (socialists) who believe that human beings can be improved through changing their social conditions and environment are deluded. Human imperfection is understood in many ways; one way is that human beings are psychologically imperfect beings. They are dependent, unstable, and fear isolation. They consequently are drawn to those things which give them security and belonging. They like what is safe and familiar, and to ‘know their place’. They feel safe and secure in an established social order where life is stable and unpredictable, and they are not forced to make decisions and choices of their own. The other being is that human beings are morally imperfect. Whereas socialists explain immoral or criminal behavior as something that is learned from the social environment (and can therefore be changed if the environment is improved), Conservatives are more likely to view it as innate. Humans are naturally selfish and greedy, and driven by a desire for power (Hobbes). Crime is a product of base human instincts. Society is only possible if there are strong laws to deter people from violent and anti-social behavior. Law is the foundation of order
Hierarchy, order, and authority are also key features of conservatism, however, conservatives have differing views from one another. Traditional conservatives believe that society is naturally hierarchical. This means, a society that is characterized by fixed or established social gradations or ranks, usually established in a pyramidal structure. The idea of social equality is treated as nonsense or unachievable. Power, status, and wealth, have always, and always will, are unequally distributed. Neo-liberal and libertarian conservatives have rejected ideas of a fixed hierarchy and embraced the liberal conception of meritocracy and social mobility based on hard work and talent. They remain committed to the idea that inequality is natural but believe this is due to peoples’ different abilities, skills, and attitudes. In addition, they believe that inequality is economically positive because it creates aspiration, competition, and dynamism, as people try to outperform their peers.
Property is another key feature of conservatism and ownership is believed by Conservatives to have deep social and psychological advantages that go beyond the accumulation of wealth. The property provides security in an uncertain world, giving people a feeling of confidence in having something ‘to fall back on if things get worse. Ownership also makes people less vulnerable to the power of others. For example, someone who owns a business cannot be sacked or made redundant. “Private property is one of the best institutions which have ever evolved, to protect us from the bullying of others”. (Roger Scruton. ‘The Meaning of Conservatism”) The property provides people with a stake in society (i.e. they have something to lose if social order is not maintained). They respect the property of others because they want their own property to be respected, and respect the law that guarantees the security of property. Hence, property ownership becomes the basis for an orderly and stable society and opposition to anarchy, For Burke, the stability of the social order lay primarily in the landowning class for they are the “great oaks that shade a country”.
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