Nature, Pleasure, Myth Animals in the Art of Japan Part 2

Primates and Performance In response to a growing population of townspeople with disposable income who sought to enjoy activities previously considered upper-class luxuries, Kabuki, a theater for the masses, came into vogue. The influence of this art form was widespread—its allure ensnared the hearts and minds of the Edo townspeople, and not a few members of the illustrious samurai class. Kabuki theater and the woodblock print industry were closely intertwined. Actor prints, or yakusha-e, made up an essential part of publishers’ profits, and these prints in turn were seen as free advertising for currently running plays. Prints of celebrity actors enjoyed great popularity in the Edo period. In the Japanese theatrical tradition, the inclusion of primates can be traced to the Middle Ages, when the Chinese import of sarugaku, or “monkey music,” was first introduced in Japan. Sarugaku performances, usually involving trained monkeys, consisted of combinations of pantomime, music and dance, acrobatics, juggling, and magic. Over time, monkeys made their way into the heart of Japanese theatrical tradition. Kono Bairei; Unsōdō, publisher Japanese, 1844–1895; Japanese, active since 1891 Monkey, from the Illustrated Book “Mirror of Paintings by Bairei” (“Bairei gakan”), 20th century Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2005.235 This print by the Kyoto-based designer Bairei Kono features a trained monkey in traditional garb, sitting with a leash attached to its collar. In contrast to Edo period (1603–1868) representations of monkeys in woodblock prints, Meiji Period (1868–1912) prints showed animals that were more naturalistic in style. Instead of the bold, stylized red lines that would have been used to indicate the monkey’s face during the Edo period, Kono shaded his monkey’s face with a far more realistic pink. While earlier prints in this section depict trained monkeys in situations that seem to blur the line between human and animal, these naturalistic representations reinforce that difference. Toyohara Chikanobu; Takekawa Unokichi, publisher Japanese, 1838–1912; Japanese, active ca. 1878–1891 A Monkey Performance in the Inner Court (“Oku oden saruhiki no zu”), 1889 Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2005.232.a–c This ōban (“large sheet”) triptych depicts a monkey-trainer performance in the court of the prince regent Yoshihito. On the left, a monkey trainer and musicians guide the show, while the prince and a number of women and children in fanciful court attire look on in fascination. In the center, the monkey, dressed in the garb of a traveling samurai with two tiny swords and a straw hat, performs a dance. As a print designer of the Meiji Era, a period of rapid modernization and change in Japan, Chikanobu produced images noteworthy for their historical nostalgia. The fashions shown in this print are, in fact, somewhat out of date, and more characteristic of Edo period styles, before the introduction of Western clothing. His liberal use of bright, imported synthetic dyes and experimentation with single-point perspective, however, are a sign of the times. Utagawa Kunisada II; Yamamotoya Heikichi, publisher Japanese, 1823–1880; Japanese, active ca. 1812–1886 The Actor Bandō Hikosaburō V as the Female Monkey Trainer Oyoshi (“Onna sarumawashi oyoshi bandō hikosaburō”), 1862 Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2005.236 This print shows an actor playing an onnagata, or female role, with a finely dressed monkey on her shoulder. Although kabuki was historically staged first by women, the eroticism of the plays led to prostitution and brawls between patrons over actresses’ favors. As a result, officials barred women from the stage in 1629. Erotic and immoral content persisted in all-male kabuki performances of the following decade, causing Tokugawa officials variously to forbid female and adolescent-male roles in a flurry of censorship. By 1652, however, these bans had been lifted on the condition that all actors wear a shaved forelock regardless of their role. Actors specializing in female roles thus began wearing a small purple headscarf to cover their shaved foreheads, as demonstrated by Bandō Hikosaburō V in this print. Utagawa Kunisada (Toyokuni III); Iseya Kanekichi, publisher; Yokokawa Takejirō, blockcutter Japanese, 1786–1864; Japanese, active 1840s–ca. 1875; Japanese, active mid-19th century A Poem by Sarumaru Tayū: The Kabuki Actor Ichikawa Kodanji IV as the Monkey Trainer Yojirō (“Sarumaru tayū sarumawashi yojirō”), from the series “Comparisons for Thirty-Six Selected Poems” (“Mitate sanjūrokkasen no uchi”), 1852 Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2005.55 This print, by the prolific ukiyo-e designer Utagawa Kunisada, depicts Ichikawa Kodanji IV, a popular kabuki actor, in the role of the monkey trainer called Yojirō. During the Edo period, the monkey trainer became a common role in kabuki plays, the practice of monkey-training being closely intertwined with the history of performance. Performers of sarugaku, or “monkey music,” were outcasts who wandered the country, often staging shows at temples. In this print, Yojirō, backed by an astonishing landscape of rocky cliffs and tree-lined mountains, looks over his shoulder at the path he has trodden, his apprehensive facial expression suggesting the depth of his thoughts. In a marked contrast to Yojirō’s humanity, his animal companion, who rides on his shoulder for the length of the journey, looks only forward and seems to be completely carefree. Utagawa Kunisada (Toyokuni III); Kawaguchiya Shōzō, publisher Japanese, 1786–1864; Japanese, active ca. 1824–1852 Ichikawa Danjūrō VIII as a White-Pawed Monkey and His Son Ichikawa Shinnosuke I as a Baby Monkey (“Tejiro no saru ichikawa danjūrō kozaru ichikawa shinnosuke”), 1839 Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2005.60 This print depicts two popular actors in the role of monkeys. The inlaid square pattern on the large monkey’s robes is the symbol and crest of the Ichikawa clan. In the Edo period, most professions were hereditary, and acting was no exception. Of the various prominent acting families of Kunisada’s time, the Ichikawa family was perhaps the most renowned, and was certainly one of the most popular. Perhaps owing to the tightly intertwined nature of the kabuki and ukiyo-e enterprises, Kunisada, who enjoyed a reputation as one of the most prolific and esteemed print artists in Edo because of his opulent designs and detailed line-work, enjoyed a close friendship with Ichikawa Danjūrō VIII. Bandō Hideko Japanese, 20th century Oshiguma (Face Rubbing) of Bandō Hideko as Kozaru from “Utsubo Zaru,” ca. 1960–1985 Kumadori on silk mounted on paper scroll Bequest of Howard Hamilton AC 2009.124 Kumadori is the name for the stage makeup worn by kabuki actors when performing their roles, meant to exaggerate their features for dramatic effect beneath the stage lights. This print, a face rubbing transferred onto silk, is an authentic mirror image of the makeup worn by Bandō Hideko when he performed the role of Kozaru the monkey in the play Utsubo Zaru. Over time, the makeup and costumes of kabuki plays took on a canonical specificity, each tailored to a well-known role. Audiences familiar with the world of kabuki could thus recognize a character from their costume alone or makeup alone. Likewise, the character of the monkey as it was known in Edo has survived to this day, complete with the traditional red-and-white accents. In addition, the staff of the sarumawashi, or monkey trainer, in use since at least the early seventeenth century, appears on the silk mounting.