Nature, Pleasure, Myth Animals in the Art of Japan Part 6

Courtesans and Animals The prints in this section reveal the importance of animals in both textile and print design. In some cases they are embroidered on the kimono of courtesans, revealing playful aspects of their personalities, while in other works, domestic animals appear almost as metaphors for the women of the Yoshiwara, or pleasure district, who were themselves adored, admired, and confined, much like a cherished pet. The Yoshiwara, an exclusive world with its own set of social rules and customs, was the area of Edo in which, beginning in the seventeenth century, prostitution was legal. The area became a popular subject in ukiyo-e, especially in the genre of bijinga, or “pictures of beauties,” which featured women from all walks of life, but especially courtesans. Designers and publishers profited from Yoshiwara imagery, which ranged from luxurious portraiture to humorous satire, and was popular with members of almost every echelon of society. The Yoshiwara similarly benefited from the fantastic pictures that obscured the harsher realities of its primary trade: sex. Beneath the glittering public image of the pleasure district lay a darker world of disease, misery, and contractual obligations. Nevertheless, the courtesans of the Yoshiwara became an incredible influence on urban society, fashion, and art of the Edo period. Beginning in the Genroku era (1688–1704), dramatic improvements in textile manufacturing resulted in lavishly decorated kimono that became widespread. Next to her hair, the kimono was a courtesan’s greatest possession, and the public display of her robes was incredibly important to her status. Ukiyoe trace the increasingly ornate of styles of kimono and hair through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and by the time the Genroku era drew to a close, the courtesans of the Yoshiwara had become trendsetters in Edo. As the publishing industry grew and the influence of the Yoshiwara on society increased, the government sought to control ukiyo-e through restrictions and sumptuary laws. In 1793, and again in 1795, censorship edicts prohibited names of women who were not licensed courtesans of the Yoshiwara in ukiyo-e. The Tenpō Reforms of 1841–1843 banned all bijinga—even those of geisha—and although this was easily circumvented by both publishers and artists in numerous creative ways, by the nineteenth century, the Yoshiwara was in decline and little resembled the magnificent world it had been in earlier centuries. The last traces of its refinement and elegance were lost along with its exclusive prostitution license in 1872, when the Yoshiwara finally came to an end. Yashima Gakutei; Tani Seikō, publisher Japanese, 1786–1868; Japanese, active ca. 1830s Surimono of an Oiran Making New Year Visits, ca. 1832 Polychrome woodblock print with metallic details and embossing Gift of William Green AC 1998.71 This print of an elaborately dressed oiran, the highest-ranking courtesan at the time, is an ornate and lavish commission meant to celebrate the New Year. As private commissions, surimono were not beholden to the sumptuary edicts limiting the materials and techniques of commercial woodblock printing, and the resulting higher quality is evident. The luminescent shine of kirazuri (mica printing), commonly used as decorative effect, draws the eye to the silver waves, flowers, and emblem backgrounds of the kimono. Careful observation also reveals detailed embossing of the robe’s designs. In addition, although the lines at the top of this print have since oxidized because of exposure and age, when this card was first given they would have glistened, to judge from from the metallic ink that is still visible. Totoya Hokkei Japanese, 1780–1850 A Treasure Assembly: Sazō Looks Out for the Jewel That Shines in the Night (“Takare awase sazō ban yakō tama”), 1830s Polychrome woodblock print with embossing Gift of William Green AC 1990.36 The bare feet of the beauty in this surimono indicate that she is a courtesan. By depicting her and her male companion, Sazō, walking furtively at night, the artist reveals an important facet of the lives of courtesans and their patrons: nearly all their interaction took place after dark. At lower left, two dogs—one groomed and pure white, the other darker and seemingly flearidden—are possibly a humorous reflection of the human pairing of refined beauty and potential lout. Many prints of this genre were commissioned by poets as gifts for their friends. Because these works combine text and image and were meant for specific occasions, they required coordination of both delivery and design, and often the employment of a calligrapher. Utagawa Kunisada (Toyokuni III); Moriya Jihei, publisher Japanese, 1786–1864; Japanese, ca. 1797–1886 An Unidentified Courtesan, from the series “A Comparison of Flowers at Night in the Cherry Blossom District” (“Hana kurabe kuruwa yo sakura”), 1858 Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2005.211 In Japanese tradition, the long-tailed tortoise, here seen on the courtesan’s robe, is a mythical figure that holds up the world and guards the northern quadrant of the universe. Believed to have incredible longevity, the tortoise is said to eventually develop a flowing white tail and the ability to conjure sacred jewels. On the tortoise’s back the same seal is visible in the cartouche with Kunisada’s name at lower right. In addition to the artist’s signature, this print bears a publisher’s seal (in white) as well as the mark of a blockcutter (in yellow). By the mid-nineteenth century, blockcutters, who were vital in ukiyo-e production, began to place their names alongside those of the artist and publisher, further evidence of the immensely collaborative nature of Japanese woodblock printing. Utagawa Kuniyasu Japanese, 1794–1832 Umewaka Mound at Mokubo Temple (“Umewaka tsuka mokuboji”), from the series “Among the Famous Sites of the Eastern Capital” (“Tōto meisho no uchi”), 1820s Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2005.321 In this design, a beautiful woman stands near the snow-covered Umewaka Mound, a sacred Buddhist pilgrimage site. According to legend, the young boy Umewakamaru, for whom the locale is named, was kidnapped and smuggled north in order to be sold. He died on the banks of the Sumida River, here visible in the background. The memorial mound named after him became a place where mothers prayed for their children’s good fortune. In the river, Kuniyasu has placed three mandarin ducks, a divergence from their conventional pairings in East Asian art, in which they figure as symbols of eternal fidelity. The addition of the third duck could be a reference to the story of Umewakamaru’s once-complete and happy family. The circular kiwame seal of the censor, a necessity in publicly sold prints, is visible at the lower left. Teisai Senchō; Tsutaya Kichizō, publisher Japanese, active ca. 1830–1850s; Japanese, active ca. 1820–1890 The Courtesan Nanabito of the Sugataebiya with Ochanomizu (“Sugataebiyanai nanabito ochanomizu”), from the series “Views of the East in All Its Glory” (“Zensei azuma fūkei”), 1830s Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 1996.123 The tiger and dragon on this courtesan’s kimono are a common pairing in East Asian art, representing the duality of the universe. The earthly tiger’s fierce nature is evident through its lifelike pose, with its paws and tail coming off the obi, as if it is ready to pounce. In contrast, the heavenly dragon, more patient and wise, lies in wait for its adversary. Interestingly, the inner layer of robes incorporates the courtesan’s name as a stylized print, which, along with her name and the identification of her ageya, confirms that this is a depiction of an active courtesan, while also enhancing the symbolic use of the robes as markers of her identity. The kimono, which was certainly custom-made, indicates her success, though not necessarily her wealth: many courtesans’ robes were gifts from their rich patrons. Keisai Eisen; Moritaya Hanzō, publisher Japanese, 1790–1848; Japanese, active ca. 1825–1835 The Syllable “Ro”: The Courtesan Suganoske of the Okamotoya as Nihonbashi (“Ro okamotoyanai suganosuke nihonbashi”), from the series “The Wandering Beauties of Edo” (“Keisei edo hōkaku”), early 1830s Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 1994.96 The front-tied obi, decorated with the back of a cat watching a butterfly, indicates that this beauty is a yūjō, an officially licensed courtesan of the Yoshiwara. Along with her sumptuous attire, her numerous hairpins signify success and popularity—and thus the high prices she commands. The text identifies Suganosuke by her received name—like actors and artists, courtesans were given names symbolic of their professional lineage—as well as her place of employment, an ageya, or pleasure house, called the Okamotoya. The Nihonbashi, a landmark bridge near the pleasure district, is visible at the upper left. Courtesans were not free to roam outside the Yoshiwara except for one day each year. Perhaps somewhat ironically, despite her confined status and her work as a courtesan, both the butterflies and dragonflies that decorate her clothes are traditionally auspicious symbols of joy. Utagawa Kuniyasu; Maruya Bun'emon, publisher Japanese, 1794–1832; Japanese, active ca. 1793–1834 Pet Rat, from the series “Elegant Young Girls and Their Playthings” (“Fūryū musume teasobi”), ca. 1825 Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 2004.180 Unlike many of the other bijinga in this section, this work features an unnamed woman. The official guild of censors restricted the naming of women in woodblock prints to only those courtesans who worked at licensed pleasure houses. In addition, commercial prints with overtly sexual subject matter were prohibited. This series, while ostensibly a selection of girls and their pets, is really an opportunity for Kuniyasu to display creative subversion of the censors and their laws: the addition of the girl’s pet rat gives the scene a playful and domestic quality, while also allowing Kuniyasu to offer the viewer a glimpse of the girl’s bosom. In addition, by organizing the series about “playthings,” Kuniyasu and his publisher put a new spin on a ubiquitous erotic subject, a necessity in the highly competitive industry of print publishing. Utagawa Toyokuni (Toyokuni I), Izumiya Ichibei, publisher Japanese, 1769–1825; Japanese, active ca. 1770s–1886 Light Blue, from the series “The Five Elegant Colors of Thread” (“Fūryū go iroito”), 1816 Polychrome woodblock print Gift of William Green AC 1996.141 In this print, the beauty’s robes are opened enticingly, just enough to offer the viewer a glimpse of bare skin. Cats, thought by the Japanese to have an ability to tempt and enthrall those who pass by them, are common tropes in bijinga, and are often shown pulling at the sashes of courtesans, causing them to expose themselves. At upper left are threads of the auspicious five colors—black, white, yellow, red, and blue—each with a symbolic meaning and association based on ancient ideas of how the universe is structured. In Japanese tradition, together the colors signal divinity or imperial rule. Here, in addition to revealing aspects of each courtesan, Toyokuni uses the five colors as a creative and inventive means of enticing potential buyers to purchase the entire series of five prints. Shibata Zeshin Japanese, 1807–1891 Cat on a Windowsill, ca. 1832–1840 Woodblock print with mica dust Gift of William Green AC 2005.179 The cat’s wry grin and the pile of dirty dishes suggest perhaps the aftermath of a party in the Yoshiwara, Edo’s pleasure district, evidenced by the green-slatted window through which courtesans would often peer, a hallmark of the pleasure houses. With this lighthearted composition, Zeshin references the privileges and vices of the wealthy merchant class, who patronized such areas during the Edo period, especially in the nineteenth century. Here, Zeshin employs mica dust on the basin to impart volume to the vessel, a possible nod to his noted skill as a maker and designer of lacquerware. Yashima Gakutei Japanese, 1786–1868 Number Ten: Liexian Zhuan, from the series “Courtesans Compared to Immortals by the Tochigiren” (“Tochigiren jūban no uchi keiseimitate retsusenden”), 1821–1822 Polychrome woodblock print with embossing Gift of William Green AC 2005.762 That this beautiful woman is a courtesan is clear from the way her obi is tied in front and the many intricate pins in her hair. Gakutei was revered for privately commissioned prints like this one. The elegant kamon (crest) of cranes in the background, the luxurious robes pooling around the figure, and the poetic inscription (written by a member of the Tochigiren, the poetry group who commissioned the work) all heighten the grace and refinement of the courtesan, who is compared to a Chinese immortal. Gakutei often portrayed graceful beauties performing household tasks. Here, the courtesan’s playful nature is suggested by the presence of a cat, which lends an almost voyeuristic quality, as if the viewer is witnessing a private moment in the daily life of a courtesan. Keisai Eisen; Matsumoto Sahei, publisher Japanese, 1790–1848; Japanese, active ca. 1849 Standing Courtesan with Blackened Teeth and Leaping Carp on Her Obi, 1830s Polychrome woodblock print on textured paper Gift of William Green AC 2005.404.a,b The carp prominently displayed on this courtesan’s obi are traditional symbols of perseverance. To reflect this nature, carp— despite commonly living in placid garden ponds—are conventionally portrayed as leaping up waterfalls and overcoming rapids. The style of this print is representative of Keisai Eisen, who designed many bijinga (prints of beauties) with incredible richness, using varied and original colors to magnificent effect, here further enhanced by the work’s kakemono-e format, which extends across two sheets. Eisen paid close attention to the details of a woman’s kimono, and in this particular design the elaborate carp, Buddhist emblems, and morning glories highlight the courtesan’s own attractive qualities. Her blackened teeth, a practice modeled after the women of the Japanese imperial court, were a symbol of adulthood and a feature considered both beautiful and refined. Lantern-Type Clock with Double Foliot Mechanism (“Nichō tenpu yagura dokei”), 19th century Black and gold lacquered carved wood, glass, bronze and other metals Gift of Miss Susan D. Bliss AC 1958.34 This clock is a marvel of nineteenth-century mechanical innovation. During the Edo period, the Japanese day was organized into twelve temporal units—six for daytime and six for night—that varied in length according to seasonal changes in sunlight. Japanese clockmakers cleverly adapted the inner workings of European clocks to compensate for these changes, resulting in an exceedingly complicated mechanism consisting of weights and two balances. Though the numbers of the six temporal units were repeated, each unit was assigned a unique zodiac animal. Indeed, the face of this clock is inscribed with both numbers (on the inner ring) and the characters for animals (on the outer ring). Emphasizing the importance of the zodiac animals on a daily basis, the names of the fauna are more prominent than the numbers. Unknown artist Japanese, active 19th century Bedding Cover (futon) with Design of Lion and Peonies, 19th century (Meiji era) Cotton, paste-resist dyed (tsutsugaki) On loan from the Julia Meech Collection Unknown artist Japanese, active 19th century Bedding Cover (futon) with Design of Two Baku, 19th century (Meiji era) Cotton, paste-resist dyed (tsutsugaki) On loan from the Julia Meech Collection Tsutsugaki—literally, “tube drawing”—is a method of textile decoration that involves extruding rice paste from a tube, not unlike a pastry bag, onto cloth, usually cotton or hemp, which is then dipped in dye, traditionally indigo. The areas covered with the starchy paste are sealed, and thus remain unaffected by the pigments in the dye. Once dry, the textile is then washed, revealing a two-toned design. These examples, which make use of several different colors, are the result of multiple stages of washing and dyeing. Both feature mystical animals: the lion, or komainu, is an auspicious guardian of temples and private residences who wards off evil spirits, while the elephant-like baku are known as shy and friendly chimeras who subsist by devouring nightmares, making them an excellent and witty subject for a bedding cover.