Markets For Labor

MARKETS FOR LABOR Chapter Overview This chapter deals with supply and demand for labor. You will learn about why the supply curve for paid labor is generally depicted as sloping upward, and why the labor supply curve for an individual worker may bend backward. Also included are topics such as market power in labor markets, the notion of compensating wage differentials, and labor market discrimination. Also highlighted are the ways in which historical and social factors can influence wage patterns over long periods of time. Objectives After reading and reviewing this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Discuss how individuals make decisions about entering the market for paid labor. 2. Understand the concepts of labor demand and labor supply, including the ambiguity regarding the slope of the labor supply curve at the individual level. 3. Describe the interaction of supply and demand in the aggregate labor market. 4. Explain variations in wages among workers, as well as how these are determined in the market. 5. Discuss recent changes in jobs and the labor force, particularly the notion of employment “flexibility,” annual work hours, and the impact of immigration. 6. Understand other explanations for wage determination not explained by the neoclassical model, such as compensating wage differentials, bargaining and unions, efficiency wages, and dual markets. 7. Discuss wage discrimination based on race and gender. Key Terms marginal revenue product of labor backward-bending individual paid screening methods compensating wage differentials oligopsony efficiency wage theory labor market discrimination gender wage gap marginal factor cost of labor labor force participation rate signaling theory monopsony labor unions dual labor markets occupational segregation worker cooperatives 1 Active Review Fill in the blank 1. The upward-sloping supply curve for labor reflects the ________________ effect of a change in the wage. 2. The higher wages are, the more leisure people may want to “buy”. This phenomenon can be described as the ________________ effect of rising wages. 3. If a variation in wages produces little change in the quantity of labor supplied, we can say that the market labor supply is relatively ________________. 4. The ________________ theory of education suggests that the value of an advanced degree lies in the information it provides about how good a worker and learner the person holding the degree is likely to be. 5. A situation in which there is only one buyer for a good is known as ______________. 6. A situation in which there is only one buyer and one seller is known as a ________________ monopoly. 7. Suppose there are many talented musicians hoping to sell their music, and just a few record label buyers of musical works. This situation, in which there are just a few buyers, is known as ________________. 8. A profit-maximizing firm will hire workers up to the point where the marginal revenue product of labor is equal to the ________________. 9. If a firm brings labor in a perfectly competitive labor market, it will maximize profits at the point where ________________ is equal to wage. 10. Paying workers a premium in order to induce harder work is covered by the theory of ________________ wages. 11. The situation in which a segment of the labor market is specialized and earns high pay and benefits while another earns little and has slim chance of advancement is known as ________________ markets. 12. Occupational ________________ refers to the tendency of men and women to be employed in different occupations. 2 True or False 13. According to the theory of compensating wage differentials, non-unionized workers are more likely to take low-paying, unpleasant jobs. 14. In a dual labor market, each worker either holds two jobs or is qualified to hold two possible jobs. 15. Any given worker’s wage can be taken as an accurate representation of that worker’s contribution to wellbeing in the economy. 16. If a firm is a monopsonist in a labor market, it will pay wages above the marginal factor cost of labor. 17. Oligopsonistic employers will tend to hire fewer workers than firms operating in a perfectly competitive labor market. Short Answer 18. If the wages of car mechanics rise, would you expect a movement along the supply curve for car mechanics, a shift in the supply curve for car mechanics, or both? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 19. Explain the concept of “efficiency wage.” ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 20. What conditions are necessary in order for the theory of compensating wage differentials to operate in reality? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3 Problems 1. Sketch a backward-bending individual labor supply curve, and indicate where on the curve the income effect is stronger than the substitution effect. 2. The following graph shows the labor market for pastry chefs. Wage (price of labor $) S E1 W1 D Q1 Quantity of Labor Suppose a popular new diet book is published that says people should eat at least one fancy French pastry per day, for optimum health. Show the change that might result in the labor market for pastry chefs and indicate the new quantity of labor supplied and the new equilibrium wage. 4 3. Suppose Amy’s Applesauce company produces jars of applesauce. The chart below shows the total number of applesauce jars produced for a given number of workers. Number of Workers 1 2 3 4 5 Number of Jars 30 70 120 140 150 Marginal physical product of labor Marginal revenue product of labor a) Fill in the marginal physical product of labor for each level of production. b) Now suppose each jar of applesauce sells for $5. Fill in the marginal revenue product of labor for each level of production. Self Test 1. Which of the following would not be considered an opportunity cost of paid employment? a. Caring for an elderly relative b. Education c. Self-employment d. Leisure e. Transportation costs of commuting to work Wage (Price of Labor) ($) Question #2 refers to the following graph. Supply of Labor B A Quantity of Labor 5 2. Which of the following statements is true? a. The income effect is stronger than the substitution effect at point A. b. The income effect is stronger than the substitution effect at point B. c. This graph represents the market supply of labor. d. An individual labor supply curve like that shown in the graph above could not occur in the real world. e. The shape of the curve is determined by the average cost of production. Question #3 refers to the graph shown below. S Wage ($) E1 W1 E2 D1 W2 D2 Q2 Q1 Quantity of Labor 3. Suppose that the graph shown above depicts a change in the labor market for graphic designers. Which of the following events could have produced the change we see in this graph? a. A new computer program allowed people to complete graphic designs automatically, without the aid of a trained designer. b. Many new graphic designers graduated from a top training program. c. The wage offered for specialized graphic design services rose. d. The market for graphic designers expanded. e. None of the above. 4. A situation in which there are many sellers of labor but only one employer (i.e. buyer of labor) can be referred to as a. Monopolistic labor b. Monopoly c. Monopsony d. Competitive equilibrium e. Labor equilibrium 6 5. Suppose there is only one company that hires skilled machinists, and all skilled machinists belong to one union. This situation, in which a single employer faces a single seller of labor, is known as a. Monopsony b. Oligopsony c. Oligopoly d. Bilateral monopoly e. Monopolistic competition 6. Factors that might make one job more appealing than another include a. working conditions b. wages c. amount of vacation offered d. both a and c are true e. a, b, and c are all true 7. The notion that, all else equal, workers will accept lower wages for jobs with better characteristics is known as the theory of a. social contribution b. consumer sovereignty c. market power d. compensating wage differentials e. employee morale 8. Efficiency wage theory holds that a. Workers will work harder when they know their current employer is paying them more than they could get elsewhere. b. Workers work less when they know they are being overpaid. c. Employee morale is not a factor influencing total productivity. d. Raising wages is the best way to increase output per worker. e. All of the above. 9. A situation in which some workers get high wages, job security, and other benefits while other workers, doing similar jobs, get low wages, no job security, and few other benefits, is known as a. An efficiency wage situation b. A wage contour c. A dual labor market d. A price discriminating labor force e. A high monitoring costs employment structure 7 10. The tendency of men and women to be employed in different occupations is referred to as a. occupational segregation. b. gender inequality. c. racial segregation. d. contour segregation. e. occupational dysphoria. 11. The neoclassical model of the labor market assumes that a. firms are relatively powerless. b. workers are sometimes irrational. c. the firm faces multiple equilibria. d. workers maximize profits. e. All of the above are true 12. When a firm hires an additional worker, all else being equal, which of the following statements is false? a. Costs rise by the amount of the additional wages paid. b. Revenue increases. c. Revenue only increases if the firm makes a positive profit. d. Profits may or may not increase. e. Output increases. 13. A profit-maximizing firm should keep hiring more labor until the point where the marginal revenue product of labor is equal to a. Marginal productivity of capital. b. Factor cost of capital. c. Monopolistic wage. d. Marginal factor cost of labor. e. Marginal factor cost of fixed assets. 14. If a firm can maximize profit simply by setting MRP L=wage, then we know that the firm must be a. A monopolist. b. A monopsonist. c. An oligopolist. d. A monopolistic producer. e. Operating in a perfectly competitive labor market. 8 15. Which of the following statements is true regarding monopsonistic employers? a. They hire more workers than firms that operate in perfectly competitive markets. b. They pay workers more than their marginal revenue product of labor. c. They pay workers less than firms that compete in labor markets. d. They reward workers better than oligopsonistic firms. e. Both a and c are true. 16. According to United States data for 2015, the median wage for women of all races was _______________ of that of men. a. 20% b. 50% c. 71% d. 83% e. 93% 17. From the perspective of an individual, the upward-sloping labor supply curve reflects the __________ effect of changes in wages. a. income b. substitution c. downward d. backward-bending e. upward 18. Which of the following jobs is most likely to have a relatively inelastic labor supply curve? a. cashier b. garbage collector c. janitor d. nuclear physicist e. none of the above 19. Suppose a firm manufactures bags of peanuts. A single worker can produce 20 bags of peanuts, but adding a second worker makes it possible to produce 45 bags of peanuts. The marginal physical product of the second worker is a. Equal to $20. b. Equal to $25. c. 20 bags of peanuts. d. 25 bags of peanuts. e. Measured in dollars but unknown from the information given in this problem. 9 20. Which one of the following statements is false? a. The gender wage gap in the United States is larger than it is in most other industrialized nations. b. In the United States, the wage gap based on gender is larger than the wage gap based on race. c. Research evidence indicates that at least a portion of the wage gap based on race in the United States is based on discrimination. d. Research evidence indicates that immigration into the United States does not have a negative impact on the wages of U.S.-born workers. e. Labor force participation rates in the United States have generally been declining over the last several decades. 10 Answers to Active Review Questions 1. substitution 2. income 3. wage inelastic 4. signaling 5. monopsony 6. bilateral 7. oligopsony 8. Marginal factor cost of labor 9. Marginal revenue product of labor 10. efficiency 11. dual 12. segregation 13. False. It is true that non-unionized workers are more likely to be found in lowpaying, unpleasant jobs, but this is not the focus of the theory of compensating wage differentials. The theory of compensating wage differentials holds that workers will be willing to accept lower wages for jobs with better characteristics and will demand higher wages for jobs with unappealing characteristics, all else being equal. 14. False. 15. False. 16. False. 17. Rising wages for car mechanics will produce movement along the supply curve only. 18. Efficiency wage theory suggests that workers perform better when they know their current employer is paying them more than they would receive elsewhere. Efficiency wages may be profit maximizing since the cost to the firm may be counterbalanced by superior work effort and loyalty on the part of the employees. 19. Workers must have very good information about job conditions and risks, and must be able to move freely to alternative jobs. Answers to Problems Wage (Price of Labor) ($) 1. Income effect is stronger Supply of Labor Substitution effect is stronger Quantity of Labor 11 2. Wage ($) S E2 W2 W1 D2 E1 D1 Q1 Q2 Quantity of Labor 3. Number of Workers 1 2 3 4 5 Number of Jars 30 70 120 140 150 Marginal physical product of labor 30 40 50 20 10 Marginal revenue product of labor $150 $200 $250 $100 $50 Answers to Self Test Questions 1. e 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. d 6. e 7. d 8. a 9. c 10. a 11. a 12. c 13. d 14. e 15. c 16. d 17. b 18. d 19. d 20. b 12