English Grammar Rules

GRAMMAR RULES: Chapter 1: Punctuation Rules APOSTROPHES Apostrophes- Possessive and Plural Nouns: There are 4 instances where plural and possessive nouns occur on the ACT : Singular: Dog, Party Plural (-s, -es): Dogs, Parties Singular Possessive (-’s): Dog’s, Party’s Plural Possessive (-s’): Dogs’, Parties’ Examples: Plural: The dogs are at the park. Singular Possessive: The dog’s ears are brown. = The ears of the dog are brown Plural Possessive: The dogs’ ears are brown. = The ears of the dogs are brown. Apostrophe- Contractions Including a Verb: Contractions: -s + apostrophe refers to a noun and a verb such as is or has. Example: The dog’s playing with the human.= The dog is playing with the human. ● It’s vs. Its: It’s= It has Its= Shows possession for it or a noun. Its’ & Its’s = Does not exist ● They’re, Their, and There: They’re = They are Their = Possessive form of they that is used before a noun. There= Referring to a setting or place ● Who’s vs. Whose: Who’s = Who has/is Whose= Possessive form of who; refers to either people or objects. Apostrophe- Contractions Including a Verb: (continued) ● You’re or Yours: You’re= you + are Yours= shows possession for your ● Showing Possession without an Apostrophe: He/She= His, Her We= Our That= Possessive form does not exist COMMAS/SEMICOLONS: ● Essentially, a semi-colon acts just as a period in which it should be followed after a complete sentence. ● Commas are frequently tested on the ACT so it is important to know and identify them thoroughly within the text. Commas- Sentence Fragments: Examples of fragments: Who was one of the greatest artists of the 21st century Explanation: This sentence does not explain the “who” in the sentence, making it incomplete. Although he was one of the most renowned pianists of our generation Explanation: The sentence begins with an introductory clause such as “although”, “eventually”, etc. , which should ALWAYS be followed by a complete clause. Punctuation plays a huge role in the English section, in which differentiating whether a sentence is a fragment determines if a sentence needs to be separated with a comma, semi-colon, period, etc. Commas- Sentence Fragments: (continued) Example: Jazz fans and scholars now unanimously consider him one of the greatest jazz musicians of the twentieth century, many consider him to be among the greatest jazz musicians of all time. 1. A. NO CHANGE B. century, many would have considered C. century. Many consider D. century; many considering Explanation: The answer to this question is C. Answer choice A. causes the two sentences to be separated with solely a comma that goes against grammar rules; therefore, this choice must be eliminated. Choice B. and D. causes the sentence to sound very awkward. Choice C. abides by the grammar rules as the second part of the sentence is, in fact, an example of a complete sentence instead of fragment. (Example taken from The Complete Guide to ACT English, 2013, pg. 29) Building A Sentence: A completed sentence must contain: A subject and a conjugated verb that follows the subject. Commas- Joining and Separating Sentences: Commas can separate two sentences through a comma + coordinating conjunction by using the acronym FANBOYS: F= For A= And N= Nor B= But O= Or Y= Yet Example: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking, and they are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. ● This sentence contains TWO independent clauses needed to be separated by a comma + coordinating conjunction as that equals a period. ● Without this rule, we’d have a run-on sentence such as this: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking and they are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. ● On top of this, we should usually never start a sentence using a FANBOY after a period or semicolon: Incorrect Example: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking. And they are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. → Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking; and they are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses (Examples taken from The Complete Guide to ACT English, 2013, pg. 43) Comma Splices and ways YOU can avoid them: ● You should never separate two independent clauses with solely a comma, as it is considered too weak to separate them correctly in the grammar world. Incorrect Example: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking, farmers around the world grow many varieties of them in both fields and greenhouses. ● You can always identify an independent clause if the beginning of the sentence begins with a pronoun such as it, she, they, etc., or an adverb. Which, in this case, both sentences start with an adverb. Commas- Dependent Clause: One option is to transform an independent clause into a dependent one, allowing you to separate the two sentences with solely a comma. Example: While tomatoes were originally small and multicolored, they are mostly large and red today. *Important: Semicolon= Period= Comma + FANBOY* ● Since a semicolon equals a period in a sentence, and a comma + FANBOY equals a period, all three equal each other allowing you to eliminate ALL THREE of them without a doubt. Commas- Non-essential and Essential Clauses: ● Non-essential elements are phrases or words that can be deleted from the sentence without altering the main idea. ● Consider this sentence: The Tower of London, which was begun by William the Conqueror in 1078, is one of the largest and most imposing fortifications in England. ● If you delete the phrase “which was begun by William the Conqueror in 1078”, the overall structure of the sentence will be unaffected. ● For sentences such as these, always surround the non-essential clause with commas. Commas- Non-Essential Transition Phrases As Well As Words: ● Common phrases that are considered “transitional” are words like however, in fact, and moreover. ● When you see these phrases between a non-essential and essential clause, you must surround them with commas. Example: It has, in fact, served as a shoe, clothing, and makeup store ● If you cannot find the non-essential clause, or you may not detect one, always look out for words such as which, whose, and where which usually start the beginning of one. ● IMPORTANT: At times, when a phrase or word is surrounded by commas, this does not always refer to a non-essential clause. Example: During the Middle Ages, London was one of the largest and most important cities in Europe, and today it remains an important financial and cultural center. ● If you cross out the “phrase”, “London was one of the largest and most important cities in Europe”, you can see how this already is a FULL sentence, which signals that it isn’t a non-essential clause. ● This also applies to sentences that include a phrase such as “however”. As mentioned before, such phrases can only be surrounded by commas when separating a non-essential clause and essential clause. Commas- Non-Essential Transition Phrases As Well As Words: (continued) Incorrect Example: London is a very old city, however, it does not contain some modern neighborhoods. ● This is incorrect as both parts of the sentence surrounding “however” are essential clauses. ● In order to correct the sentence we must add a semicolon before the transition phrase and add a comma following it: Correct Example: London is a very old city; however, it does not contain some modern neighborhoods. Comma- rule of the word “That” OR “Who” In Essential or Non-Essential Clauses: ● Any phrase or “clause” beginning with the word “that” should never be surrounded by commas. ● Therefore, it is ALWAYS incorrect to use a comma before or after the word “that”. Correct Example: Parrots are one of the most difficult pets that a person can have because they are intelligent, demanding, and live for up to 50 years. ● For phrases that begin with the phrase “who”, are more tricky as it depends on the context within the phrase. Correct Example: People, who attend large open air events such as sporting matches and music festivals, often turn to camping as a cheap form of accommodation. This refers to the idea that people NORMALLY attend these events causing the phrase (bolded) to not affect the sentence in any way. Comma- rule of the word “That” OR “Who” In Essential or Non-Essential Clauses: (continued) Correct Example #2: People who attend large open air events such as sporting matches and music festivals often turn to camping as a cheap form of accommodation. This puts emphasis on a specific group of people: the group of people who normally attend the following events listed above. More examples: Normally, customers have one year from the purchase date to return unwanted or defective items; however, customers, who make purchases on February 29th, have four years to return their items. 1. A. NO CHANGE B. customers, who make purchases on February 29th C. customers who make purchases on February 29th, D. customers who make purchases on February 29th Explanation: Answer choice A. wouldn’t make sense in this context. If you cross out the phrase that is underlined, it will be read “customers have four years to return their items”. This is incorrect as it leaves out important information, changing the sentence entirely. Choice B. is incorrect as it should have either 2 or 0 commas surrounding it since it is a clause. Choice C. is incorrect as there should not be a comma between a subject and a verb. Therefore, choice D. is the correct choice, putting emphasis on the important part of the phrase- “customers have four years to return their items”. ANSWER: choice D (Example taken from: The Complete Guide to ACT English, 2013, pgs.62- 64) Commas with Names and Titles: When it comes to comma rules one of the most important rules you must know is that names or titles can either be essential or non-essential. You may have learned that you should always place a comma before a title or name; however, on the ACT it is different. If the name/title is presented in the middle of the sentence, you must either: ● Two commas should be placed before and after the title/name ● Do not include commas at all As mentioned before, you will always know when to surround a phrase, name, or title with commas if it is non-essential meaning you can cross it out and the sentence will still make sense. Here’s an example: Ada Lovelace and her acquaintance, Charles Babbage, were two of the most influential figures in the history of computer science. 1. A. NO CHANGE B. acquaintance Charles Babbage C. acquaintance Charles Babbage, D. acquaintance, Charles Babbage Explanation: The answer to this question is choice B. Choice C and D are grammatically unacceptable as there cannot be one comma before or after the name/title when it is presented in the middle of the sentence. Choice A, although is grammatically acceptable, doesn’t include a crucial piece of information. We don’t know who Ada’s acquaintance is. Therefore, the name IS essential to the sentence, deleting the commas within the sentence. Commas with Names and Titles: (continued) ● Include commas around a title/name it usually implies that there is 1 person or object. ● 0 commas imply that there is a group of people or objects. In general, commas should be used: Separating Items in a List: ● Ex: At the mall there were stores that sold clothes, toys, and makeup. When separating adjectives whose order you can reverse: ● Ex: The museum is known to hold many creative, admirable pieces. Commas should be found following Introductory Phrases: ● At first, I thought she was going to miss the bus. Commas with Names and Titles: (continued) Places in which Commas should NEVER be used: Compound Items: ● Commas should never be found in between compound items which consist of two elements such as nouns or adjectives. ● As mentioned before, a comma and a FANBOY is equivalent to a period; therefore, you should not separate two words with a comma and a FANBOY. ● Incorrect Example: Albert Einstein, and Blaise Pascal are two of the most infamous scientists known in history. ● This will look like : Albert Einstein. Blaise Pascal are two of the most infamous scientists known in history. ● In which, this sentence is grammatically incorrect. Instead, omit the comma to fix the sentence. Commas should never be used before or after Prepositions: ● Prepositions- refers to a location or time this includes words such as of, for, in, with, before, or after. Incorrect example: Albert Einstein and Blaise Pascal are two, of the most infamous scientists known in history ● There should not be a comma between two and of as of is a preposition Commas with Names and Titles: (continued) Between Adjectives and “Yet” or “But”: ● On the ACT, you will rarely find questions that allow you to use a comma between a FANBOY and an adjective. Incorrect Example: The college essay topic she discussed with her classmates was creative, yet informative. ● In order to correct this sentence, omit the comma between creative and yet. Never Use Commas around or before words that include “self”: ● These words include: yourself, myself, itself, themself and its plural forms (i.e. themselves, yourselves, etc). Incorrect Example: ● The above sentence is incorrect, in which you must omit the commas surrounding it to make it grammatically correct. ● There’s a catch! Remember, if you come across a sentence that includes a “self” word you must make sure that it is not surrounded by a non-essential clause or FANBOY. ● If it is, then you SHOULD put a comma. Example of a “self” word that is followed by a FANBOY: He mostly wanted to be by himself, but he still remained very sociable with his small group of friends. Example of a “self” word that includes a non-essential clause: Although he mostly wanted to be by himself, he still remained very sociable with his small group of friends. COLONS & DASHES Colons- Introduction: 2 major uses ● Used to introduce or give further explanation ● Provide context for a list following a colon Colons can only be used following a complete sentence, as it cannot stand by itself. Colons- Introduces a List: Example: You won’t usually see people own spiders as pets for one particular reason: they require constant care and specific requirements when dealing with the environment they inhabit. ● Always remember: you will always know if a colon is acceptable in the sentence if a complete sentence follows the colon. ● If you can replace the colon with a semicolon or period, this means that adding a colon is grammatically correct. ● However, if you encounter a question that involves choosing between an answer choice including a semicolon or a colon, the question involves you to look into the context of the sentence. The second clause must EXPLAIN the first clause, and if it does it requires a colon. If not, it does not require a colon. Incorrect Example: NASA was created in the year 1958 instigated by the Space Race: the organization was later made public. ● Replace the colon with either a semicolon or period. Dashes- Introduction: Dashes have 3 uses: ● They are used to create hesitation in a sentence ● To separate a non-essential clause ● Provide context for a list following a dash Dashes- To Separate A Non-Essential Clause 2 Dashes = 2 Commas ● As mentioned before, a non-essential clause is usually separated with two commas surrounding it. ● This rule is the same for dashes as shown below: The school, which is known to hold a prestigious reputation, closed down last week! = The school - which is known to hold a prestigious reputation - closed down last week! Used Before a List: This is used in the exact same way as a colon in which it should be used following a COMPLETE sentence. ● The following example was used to introduce colons: NASA was created in the year 1958 instigated by the Space Race- the organization was later made public Used to Create Hesitation or a Pause: Dashes can also be used as a way to make diction sound more interesting. By using this, it creates a suspenseful pause in the sentence. Example: Desserts have traditionally been characterized by their sweetness- but now, bakers are creating ones that feature intriguing blends of sweet and savory. Chapter 2: Subject-Verb Agreement and Verb Tense Both agreement and tense appear at the same time in a text in which they are based off of the following: ● Number in which the subject is referring to. If the sentence refers to more than one object or sentence, the verb should be plural. If it is referring to one object in a sentence, the verb should be singular. ● Verb tense; This refers to when the context of the sentence occurred. Incorrect Example: The spots of the leopard has played a role in hunting and camouflage. ● This is incorrect as it causes a disagreement between the subject of the sentence- the spots and the verb- has. The verb “has” refers to a SINGULAR subject (if spots were spot). Therefore, the verb should be changed to “have”. You can answer subject-verb agreement by: 1) Identifying the subject and contemplating whether it is plural or singular: The subject is always before the verb; therefore, if the subject ends with -s it is plural and if it doesn’t it is singular. 2) Looking at the answer choices and discussing whether the verb is singular or plural: Subject-Verb Agreement and Verb Tense (continued) If the subject was plural, then the verb should be plural. If the subject is singular, then the verb should be singular. ● Singular verbs end in the letter -s. ● Plural verbs don’t end in the letter -s. Example: The works of Leonardo Da Vinci has included elements that have inspired many aspiring artists. A. NO CHANGE B. Includes C. Have included D. Having included Explanation: The answer to this question is C. Look at the subject: “the works”= plural. The verb: “has included”= singular. Change the verb to: “have included”= plural. Then, the subject and verb of the sentence will agree with each other. Irregular Verbs Tested on The ACT: Two irregular verbs tested on the ACT are: “To be” and “to have” Present Tense: singular plural Past Tense: singular plural To be To have is has are have was had were had Construction of Subject/Verb Agreement: The common construction of subject-verb agreement is: SUBJECT → PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE →VERB As mentioned before, a prepositional phrase refers to a time and location: to, by, with, and at. The works of Leonardo Da Vinci have inspired many aspiring artists. The works= subject Of Leonardo Da Vinci= prepositional phrase Have inspired= verb ● When it comes to identifying the prepositional phrase, do not let this distract you from finding the subject and the verb. ● The verb should only agree with the subject, so solely focus on those two. Essential & Non-Essential Clauses in Subject/Verb Agreement: You will come across subject-verb agreement questions that include a prepositional phrase in between the subject and the verb: Example: Incorrect: Orange juice with ice, which is a refreshing drink during the summer, are said to have Vitamin C. ● Which phrase represents the non-essential clause? ● First, cross out “which is a refreshing drink during the summer” and see if the sentence still makes sense. ● Orange juice with ice are said to have Vitamin C. (This is incorrect). ● This sentence is incorrect; replace “are” to “ is” since the subject is SINGULAR Correct Example: ● Orange juice with ice is said to have Vitamin C. Orange juice with ice, which is a refreshing drink during the summer, is said to have Vitamin C. This works the same for essential clauses: Orange juice with ice that is a perfect combination during summertime is said to have Vitamin C. Verb Tense: These are the major tenses found in the ACT: ● Perfect Present= has/have + past participle Ex. The perfect present of paint is has painted Used for events that occurred or started in the past and continue through present. ● Simple Past= add -ed to the verb or -ew, -ang, or -ank Ex. The simple past for paint is painted Used for an event that occurred in the past. ● Past Perfect= had + past participle Ex. The past perfect- tense for paint is had painted Used for events that have already occurred but referring to one of the two events to have come first. Usually when you see the phrase “by the time”, you should use past perfect. Verb Tense: (continued) Ex. 2) By the time I finished my chores, my brother had finished practicing the piano. ● Would vs. Will: Will= Refers to events that will happen in the future Would= Refers to events that COULD happen ● Would have vs. Will have: Important: Whenever you see answer choices that include “would have” or “will have” on the ACT it is almost always the wrong answer: Would have= Refers to events that COULD have happened but didn’t occur. Will have= Refers to events that will be completed prior to the second event. Gerunds (Review): This may be a review or it may not depending on how much grammar you’ve learned in your high school classes, but gerunds are simply verbs + -ing. Example: grow → growing; to be → being ● Important: Whenever you see answer choices containing the word “being”, they are usually wrong. Parallel Structure: ● Parallel structure should include a basic pattern of the words, more specifically verbs, prepositions, and nouns in the sentence: ● The words in the sentence should have the same grammatical structure: Real ACT example: As a young woman, she wrote of pining for a valentine and of visiting the Chinese museum in Boston. A. NO CHANGE B. Visiting to C. Of her visiting to D. Of her visiting at Explanation: The underlined portion contains the construction: of + gerund, in which we have to look to see if there are any other items containing that structure. In fact, there is. The preceding words, “of pining” is parallel to the underlined phrase. Therefore, we can infer that this sentence is grammatically correct- answer choice A. (Taken from prepscholar: Parallel Structure for ACT English: Grammar Rules, 2015) ● This also applies to items in a list: Incorrect Example: I admired the lion’s beauty, ferociousness, and being brave. Explanation: As said before, whenever you see the word “being” in a sentence, it is intentionally put there to throw the test-taker off from the main construction of the sentence. “Being” is a gerund which is not present anywhere in the sentence. Therefore, we must replace “being brave” with a word that matches the same construction of the other adjectives. The last item should be replaced with “bravery” to match the preceding adjectives’ construction. Chapter 3: Pronouns; Pronoun Number Agreement, Ambiguity, and Case: As you know, pronouns replace the noun of a sentence. The pronouns should agree with the number of antecedents or nouns they directly infer to. This is the same concept as subjects and its verbs. Singular pronouns are to go with singular subjects and plural pronouns are to associate with plural subjects. ● The Pronouns: One & You: The pronouns one and you both refer to people in general. However, in a paragraph, the pronouns should not contain two of the same. If the paragraph consistently uses second-person, you should use the pronoun “you” in the sentence, and if it maintains an ambiguous point of view, you should replace the pronoun with “one”. ● People vs. Objects: Pronouns refer to people and objects very differently: People: Singular Plural He, She They Him, Her Them His, Her Their Pronouns; Pronoun Number Agreement, Ambiguity, and Case: (continued) Example: Mae Jemison became the first African-American woman to travel into space when she went into orbit aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavor on September 12, 1992. After completing one’s medical education and working briefly in general practice, Jemison served in the Peace Corps for two years. 1. A. NO CHANGE B. her C. their D. your Explanation: From reading the passage, you can see how the writing is referring to Mae Jemison who is clearly a female. The underlined part of the sentence conflicts with the rest of the passage as “one” is used to show ambiguity. We know Jemison’s pronouns are “she” or “her” due to context clues in the paragraph. Therefore, the answer to this question is B. Tip: If we do not know what the gender or the person is we should use the phrase “he or she” or “his or her”. Although you may think “they” is acceptable, the ACT requires you to know the singular pronouns to their singular antecedents and plural pronouns to their plural antecedents. Example: When a baker bakes a cake, he or she will use a toothpick to determine if it is thoroughly baked or not. Pronouns; Pronoun Number Agreement, Ambiguity, and Case: (continued) Objects: Singular Plural It They/Them Its Their This These That Those ● The most commonly tested pronouns are either it, they, its, or their. Example: The cacao bean is the dried and fully fermented fatty bean of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao). Their the source of cocoa butter and solids, including chocolate, as well as an ingredient in many Mesoamerican dishes such as molé and tejate. 2. A. NO CHANGE B. It is C. One is D. They’re Explanation: Choice A. is used to describe possession which does not make sense in the context of the paragraph. Choice C. is used to describe a PERSON, but the paragraph is discussing the cacao bean. Choice D, although is grammatically correct, refers to a plural noun in which the noun is singular in the paragraph. Therefore, the best answer choice is B. Pronoun Ambiguity: ● When identifying the pronoun is UNCLEAR, you should pick choices that are specific to the subject they are referring to. Example: Lisa and Martha went to the beach. She, however, had to leave early. A. NO CHANGE B. Martha C. Their D. She would be ● When you come across this type of question, you should pick the choice that provides specific pronouns when it seems to be unclear on “who” completed the action in the sentence. Therefore, in this case, choice B is the answer. Pronoun Case: ● Questions dealing with pronoun cases rarely occur in the ACT but it is pertinent to learn. ● The case of a pronoun discusses whether it is implied as a subject pronoun or an object pronoun: Subject Pronouns include: - 1st person (Singular)= I - 1st person (Plural)= We - 2nd person (Singular)= You - 2nd person (Plural)= You - 3rd person (Singular)= She/He/It/One - 3rd person (Plural)= They ● Martha was the first to stand in line at the lemonade stand. → She was the first to stand in line at the lemonade stand. Object Pronouns Include: - 1st person (Singular)= Me - 1st person (Plural)= Us - 2nd person (Singular)= You - 2nd person (Plural)= You - 3rd person (Singular)= Her/Him/It/One - 3rd person (Plural)= Them ● Tomorrow morning, Martha and Susy will go to the park with Chloe. → Tomorrow morning, Martha and Susy will go to the park with her. Relative Pronouns: People Objects People & Objects Who Which Whose Whom That IMPORTANT: Whom should never come before a VERB or after a preposition Chapter 4: Comparing Two Different Variables; Comparison/Description: 2 Main Comparisons: to indicate Similarity & Difference: ● As...as: Used to bring two people or objects together to imply they are equal: Example: Ariana Grande is as famous a singer as Lady Gaga. ● Not only...but...also: Used to contrast two objects or people at the same time comparing them: Example: Ariana Grande is not only a talented singer but she is also a talented impersonator. ● More/Less Than: In general, used to compare two variables: Example: Martha is smarter than Lucy. ● Neither…(n)or: Example: Neither John nor Mary is as fast of a runner as Simon. ● From…to: Example: Matthew is not very picky when it comes to games; He can play anything from Jenga to Super Smash Bros. ● Fewer & Many: Used to refer to things that are quantifiable and plural nouns. ● Less & Much: Used for singular nouns; Used to refer to things that are not quantifiable. ● That of vs.Those of: For Singular Comparisons: “That of’ Example: Her cat has longer a tail than that of an average cat. For Plural Comparisons: “Those of” Example: Her cat’s ears are longer than those of other cats. Chapter 5: Concision: Eliminating useless phrases One rule: Shorter answer choices are always your best bet. Avoid Choosing Answer Choices That Include Synonyms: On the ACT, you will find answer choices that describe the same thing using 2 of the same words, in which you can always replace with one word. Real ACT example: The iditarod dog sled race takes place annually in Nome, Alaska, each year. A. NO CHANGE B. Annually in Nome, Alaska, occurring every year. C. On an annual basis in Nome, Alaska, each year. D. annually in Nome, Alaska Explanation: Choice A., B, and C. contain the words “annual” and “each year”. Both of these terms are synonyms making the sentence redundant. Therefore, you can automatically eliminate all three which leaves choice D. as your answer. Too Many Words! : ● Usually, answer choices on the ACT English Section will include words as “filler” as a way to create a longer sentence. ALWAYS avoid choosing these answers and pick ones that give a concise answer. ● When you have to choose answer choices that generally imply the same main idea, it is best to choose the shortest one out of the bunch. This is usually correct. Example: During the Nimrod Expedition to the South Pole in 1907, Ernest Shackleton led a group of explorers on a voyage that was dangerous in nature. A. NO CHANGE B. A voyage of dangerous sort. C. A dangerous voyage. D. A voyage that was dangerous in itself. Explanation: Choice A, B, and D all include the same overall meaning of the phrase. However, these phrases include words that are irrelevant to get the point across- “itself”, “sort”, “in nature”. In these cases, choose the answer that is the shortest. Therefore, choice C. is the best answer. (Taken from The Complete Guide to ACT English, 2013, pg.170) Avoid Using Passive Voice: ● The passive voice is when the person or object instigating an event becomes the object pronoun and the person or object affected by this event becomes the subject pronoun. ● Therefore, it is the reversed form of active form (x does y) → y does x. Chapter 6: Modifiers Within Sentences; Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers: ● Dangling Modifiers: You can always identify a dangling modifier characterized as an introductory phrase. This phrase refers to the subject in which the subject always follows a dangling modifier. A young scientist from Texas, Anika Chebrolo successfully found potential therapy for COVID-19 and saved thousands of individuals. A young scientist from Texas → Anika Chebrolo ● As you can see, dangling modifiers usually describe the subject, which in this case, referred to Anika Chebrolo. ● This will assist you in identifying what the subject and who the dangling modifier is referring to. ● Misplaced Modifiers: Misplaced modifiers are different from dangling modifiers as they don’t always include introductory phrases. Misplaced modifiers can take place anywhere in the sentence. Anika Cherbolo, a young scientist from Texas, successfully found potential therapy for COVID-19 and saved thousands of individuals. Modifiers Within Sentences; Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers: (continued) On the ACT, you will questions that will ask which phrase or word will fit BEST within the sentence: Real ACT example: Practice Test #1: Official Guide Mosaic was soon not the first web browser, but it surpassed all rivals. 39. The best placement for the underlined portion would be: A. where it is now B. After the word Mosaic C. After the word browser (and before the comma). D. After the word it. Explanation: A) Mosaic was soon not the first web browser, but it surpassed all rivals. This is incorrect as it refers to the idea that it lost its status of surpassing all rivals. This can be eliminated. B) Mosaic soon was not the first web browser, but it surpassed all rivals. This also refers to the idea that it lost all its status of being the first web browser. This can be eliminated. C) Mosaic was not the first web browser soon, but it surpassed all rivals. This sounds very awkward and can automatically be eliminated. D) Mosaic was not the first web browser, but it soon surpassed all rivals. This is correct, as it does not change the meaning of the sentence or the context. It modifies the verb “surpassed”, creating the most logical statement. RHETORICAL SKILLS Chapter 7: Diction: Register, Idioms, and Commonly Mistaken Words: ● Diction: Used to characterize the author’s word choice. This can be idiomatic- using words that aren’t particularly used in formal English. These can be hard to detect, in which the only tip for this topic is to make an educated guess to which idiomatic expression sounds the most correct: Commonly Mistaken Words: ● Than vs. Then: Than= Compares two events Then= Provides a transition ● Have vs. Of: Have= Possess Other examples include: ● Accept vs. Except: Accept: Agreement Except: Excludes Commonly Mistaken Words: (continued) ● Addition vs. Edition: Addition: Added onto Edition: Version of ● Allusion vs. Illusion: Allusion: Figure of speech Illusion: To describe an object or event that didn’t really occur. Idioms Including Prepositions: ● These are usually idioms you might see on the ACT English Test: Be curious about Critical to Be particular about Reflect on Bring about Adept in/at Known as/to be In itself Followed by Involved in Contrast with Succeed in Look (out) for Appreciation of Strive for Devoid of Watch for Serve as Obscured by Command of Translated as In the hope(s) of Draw up Proponent of Take up Source of Principles of Use of Prized for Understanding of Necessary for Typical of Have a tendency Preoccupied with In contrast to Identify with Native to Sympathize with Register: Register: This is used to refer to how formal or informal the author’s choice in language is. Important: Very informal answer choices are generally incorrect, so you can always eliminate them. Real ACT Example: In 1970, the school board in Pittsfield, New Hampshire, approved a dress code that prohibited students from wearing certain types of clothing. The school board members believed that wearing “play clothes” to school made the students inefficient toward their school work, while more formal attire established a positive educational climate. A. NO CHANGE B. Lazy and bored to tears with C. Blow off D. Lax and indifferent toward Explanation: Already, the first choice should be eliminated as this does not make sense idiomatically. Choice B. seems too informal for the passage, as the phrase “bored with tears” is an expression. Choice C. uses a “slang” phrase which doesn’t fit the author’s choice in language. Therefore, choice D. is the best answer as it fits the formality of the passage. This answer choice is also idiomatically accurate. Chapter 8: Transitions: ● The ACT tests transition within sentences, within sentences, and between paragraphs. ● Usually, the ACT will include transitions that are phrases or single words. Transitions That Contradict: Used to show that two ideas presented in the text contrast one another. ● But ● Despite ● In contrast ● Nevertheless ● Instead ● Meanwhile ● On the contrary ● On the other hand ● Still ● Regardless ● Whereas ● While ● Yet ● Even so ● Even though Transitions: (continued) Transitions That Continue an Idea: Used to show that two ideas presented within the text share similar views/ideas. ● And ● Also ● Finally ● Furthermore ● Indeed ● In fact ● Next ● Of course ● Then ● That is ● Moreover ● Similarly ● In addition ● In conclusion ● Likewise Transitions That Show a Cause and Effect Relationship: ● Thus ● Therefore ● So ● Since ● Because ● For ● Consequently ● As such ● As a result ● Accordingly Transitional Words/Phrases Within Sentences: Practice Test #2: Official Guide- 6. A key finding from her intensive field studies is the extent to which elephant survival depends on learned behavior. As Moss has observed,however, a calf must learn how to use its trunk. At first a young elephant will drink by kneeling down at the water’s edge and sipping directly with its mouth. A. NO CHANGE B. For instance, C. As always, D. By now, Explanation: First cross out the transitional word already given in the sentence. When reading the excerpt, it seems as though the sentence is giving evidence and explanation to the claim regarding learned behavior in elephants. Therefore, we know that the overall role of the sentence is to give evidence to or explain. Therefore, choice A should be crossed off. The word “however” shows contrast. Choice C. and D. are not a good enough transitions to provide explanation. This leaves us with choice B. as our answer as it provides transition to examples. Important: When looking at answer choices, you cannot look at which one sounds the most correct as you really need to look into the context of the paragraph and the sentence. You can do this by crossing out the already existing transitional phrase/word. Transitional Phrases/Words Between Sentences: Practice Test # 3- Official GuideAnything invented after the sixteenth century had to be explained in Renaissance terms. However, when a guest wished to take a photograph, we would marvel at the camera and ask how much lifelike paintings were created inside the tiny box. A. NO CHANGE B. For example, C. One time, D. Instead, Explanation: By crossing out the transitional word, we can see how the preceding statement gives a claim and the sentence following it gives examples. Just from this, we can see that one of the answer choices provides a transition to examples- “for example”. If we plugged in choices A, and D does not provide a logical transition as they, instead, contradict. Choice C. gives an incident that occurred and does not clearly explain the preceding sentence. Therefore choice B. is the most logical. Transitional Words/Phrases Between Paragraphs: ● In these questions, it is important to look at the overall main idea of the preceding paragraph and paragraph in which the sentence containing the transitional phrase begins. ● In general, you should approach these questions with an overall idea of what the paragraphs are discussing. If the transitional phrase occurs between these two paragraphs, summarize both and choose the answer choice that fits with both of your summaries. ● If an answer choice does not contain what you’ve summarized, it is most likely wrong. Synonymous Transitions Within A Sentence: ● If there is already a transitional phrase/words in a sentence, it does not need to be included in another part of the sentence: Incorrect Example: Because she had too much cake last night, so she had a stomach ache. Correct Example: Because she had too much cake last night, she had a stomach ache. Chapter 9: Relevance: ● On the ACT English section, there are questions that will ask to revise, delete, or add any information to the text given. ● This tests your ability in determining which information is irrelevant or relevant. Adding Information: ● To answer these questions: you have two things to do prior to selecting your answer. ● Look to see if the answer to the question is yes or no. This narrows your answer choices by half. ● Then, in your own words, summarize why you think it should be answered yes or no. Adding Information: (continued) Practice Test #2- Official Guide: *Passage for reference* Question no. 27: Adding Information: (continued) It was exhausting to spend every day in the hot summer temperatures while pretending to be a person who lived in a different country and century. The physical demands were especially strenuous for the queen and us ladies-in-waiting because our costumes consisted of confining corsets, several scratchy petticoats, and heavy velvet gowns. 27 27. At this point, the writer is considering adding the following sentence: Many theme park characters have to wear uncomfortable costumes. Should the writer make this addition here? A. Yes, because it develops the essay’s earlier comparison between Renaissance fairs and theme parks. B. Yes, because it elaborates on the preceding sentence’s point about costumes. C. No, because it adds a comment that’s only loosely related at this point in the essay. D. No, because it repeats information stated elsewhere in the essay. Explanation: The first step to answering this question is to read the preceding sentences to establish some idea of what the passage is trying to tell readers. From the passage, it seems to be discussing the Renaissance Fair, rather than costumes at a theme park. Therefore, the first part of the question is answered- no, it shouldn’t be added. This eliminates choices A. and B. In your own words, explain why it shouldn’t be added. As we’ve said before, the passage discusses the Renaissance Fair rather than theme parks, so the sentence is barely related to what the topic of passage. This is very similar to answer choice C., as theme parks were never mentioned anywhere in the passage (eliminating choice D.). ANSWER: C. Revising Information: ● These questions determine whether the original information in the passage should be altered to put specific emphasis on the original intent of the author. Practice Test #2: Official Guide: * Passage for reference* Question No. 2: Revising Information: (continued) To those with an interest in history, however, it’s a unique building that preserves a part of the legacy of the Chinese community in the nineteenth-century American West. 2. Given that all the choices are true, which one most efficiently introduces the historical and cultural significance of the Kam Wah Chung & Co. building? A. NO CHANGE B. Has seven rooms: a front room, an herb shop, two bedrooms, a stockroom, a general store, and a kitchen and bunk room. C. Is cooperatively preserved and operated by the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department and the City of John Day. D. Has a kitchen that holds antique tables, a large wood stove, and a variety of Chinese teas and cooking utensils. Explanation: When approaching these questions, you should look for the answer that directly gives emphasis to the question. Questions that are not relevant to the question can be eliminated. Choices B and C don’t illustrate the cultural significance of the passage as C. is irrelevant to the passage and choice B does not illustrate cultural significance. Choice D. describes utensils in a kitchen setting which does not describe historical or cultural significance. Therefore, answer choice A. is the best. ANSWER: choice A. Deleting Information: ● Usually these questions test you on the ability to identify the focus of the passage and whether the information present is irrelevant to the passage. ● Another form in which these questions are formatted is to answer a what if question. Usually these questions will ask what type of information is being lost as a result of a word or phrase deletion. ● Since we went over “adding information” questions previously, it deals with the same type of thinking process. Deleting Information: (continued) Practice Test #2- Official Guide- Question no.9: Deleting Information: (continued) Over time, the partners’ building evolved into a social, medical, and supply center, as well as a post office, library, and herb shop. 9 9. If the writer were to delete the preceding sentence, the paragraph would primarily lose a statement that: A. Demonstrates the scope of services eventually provided in the Kam Wah Chung & Co. building. B. Makes clear that the social aspect of Kam Wah Chung & Co. was most important to visitors. C. Provides a summary of one regular visitor’s experiences at the Kam Wah Chung & Co. D. Indicates for how long Hay and On’s businesses prospered. Explanation: You should summarize the passage, and summarize the sentence being deleted. If you understand the context in which the sentence fits in the paragraph, you will understand what purpose the underlined portion serves. In this case, “ it describes what types of goods and services the building gives” is an example of a summary of the underlined portion. When looking through the answer choices, we can see choice A is the best choice. ANSWER: choice A. Chapter 10: Sentence/Paragraph Order ● For these questions, you should first understand the context of the sentence that the question refers to. ● See if the sentence fits before the previous sentence or after the sentence following it. ● If it still doesn’t fit, try to start from the beginning of the paragraph and work your way down. Sentence/Paragraph Order: (continued) 14. For the sake of the logic and coherence of this paragraph, Sentence 2 should be placed: A. NO CHANGE B. Before sentence 1 C. After sentence 3 D. After sentence 5 Explanation: The bracketed numbers refers to the sentence number. First, the context of sentence 2 refers to the idea that because of certain factors such as climate, there were a variety of artifacts that were restored in a certain area that should be discussed previous to sentence 2. Then identify the context of sentence 1: this sentence does not specify the information needed to understand sentence 2. The sentence therefore doesn’t fit after sentence 1, eliminating choice A. Choice B. nor C. would work either as we still don’t know what they mean by “artifacts left inside”- where? Therefore, the correct answer to this question is choice D. as we know that they are referring to the artifacts left inside the building that have remained locked. Paragraph Order: ● This is basically sentence order but in a broader perspective. ● First, note the topic sentence of the paragraph that the question is referring to. ● Read the last sentence of the preceding paragraph and determine whether it most logically transitions to the next. If yes, then it should be where it is, but if not, continue to read the last sentence of each paragraph until you find one that logically fits. ● Usually these questions are relatively easy to answer if you understand the context of the paragraph that the question is referring to. These are usually how the questions will be formatted: Splitting Paragraphs: ● These types of questions ask you to refer to a point in a paragraph where the paragraph should split or when there is a shift in topic. Practice Test 2014-2015: (67C)- Question no. 75 Splitting Paragraphs: (continued) 75. The writer wants to divide the preceding paragraph into two to create a concluding paragraph that is free of direct references to a specific culture’s view of the three stars. The best place to begin the new paragraph would be at the beginning of Sentence: A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7 Explanation: The overall context of this paragraph is explaining the origins and story behind the constellation Orion. Choice A. does not seem like a good place to split the paragraph, as it discusses the symbols of the constellation and how the stars relate to the preceding paragraph’s explanation of Orion’s role as a hunter in the myths. Choice B. and C are not good places to split the paragraph either as it continues the story of Orion and his role as a hunter in Greek mythology. Therefore, choice D. is the correct answer as it shifts the focus from Orion’s role in Greek mythology to the bigger picture, describing how many stars there are and the stories behind them. ANSWER: choice D. ● By understanding the context of the paragraph as a whole and the role it plays, look at the answer choices one by one and see which matches with the topic of the paragraph. ● If you see any answer choices that shift the overall tone or focus of the paragraph, that should give you a clue on what the answer is. Chapter 11: What is the Author’s Intent? ● These questions test your knowledge on whether or not the text given sufficiently relayed the writer’s goal. ● Luckily, these questions are usually present at the end of a set of questions for a given paragraph, so it is much easier to grasp the main idea of the passage. ● To assist you in understanding what the main idea is in a passage, you should look at the title of the text. If the title is “Marie Curie: Two-Time Nobel Peace Prize Winner” gives you an idea of what the author’s goal throughout this paragraph is. ● Thus, reread the introduction of the passage and title in order to have a better understanding of the passage. If you still aren’t sure then read the first sentences of each paragraph and go straight to the conclusion. ● Answer the “yes” or “no” aspect of the question first: Did the passage fulfill the author’s goal? ● In your own words, why did or didn’t the passage fulfill the author’s goal. Example of how these questions are formatted: Suppose the writer’s goal was to write the passage on… Would this essay fulfill the writer’s goal? A. Yes, because… B. Yes, because… C. No, because… D. No, because…