Learning Theories In Education

LEARNING THEORIES IN EDUCATION A. Introduction Understanding learning theories from a psychological approach is an effort to recognize the reality of objective conditions for children who are undergoing a learning process in the context of the process of growth and development towards maturity. The approach of a particular theory is not the truth that is believed to be the only approach, but is an assumption that needs to be considered in its implementation, relating to various aspects and effects that may have a certain impact. The issues that need to be considered are related to the following aspects: human nature, educational goals, educational content, and values and methods of achieving educational goals. Let us follow the description of the theories currently developing which have an influence on the development of the world of education in Indonesia in particular. 1. Cognitive Psychology Theory (Cognitivism) Cognitive psychology, influenced by Kurt Lewin, John Dewey, and Kohler, holds the view that the learning process in humans involves a cognitive recognition process. The way adults learn is different from the way children learn, where the way adults learn involves more higher cognitive abilities. To explain the learning process, one must consider the cognitive process (knowledge) that takes part during the learning process. Direct recognition of something that involves logic or experience is called discovery, while the learning process that involves high-level cognition is called learning by intuition or possibly through revelation. Cognitivism psychologists view that a person's cognitive development experiences stages of development according to the individual's increasing age. Jean Piaget divided the stages of cognitive development from childhood and adolescence into four stages, namely: a. Sensori-motor stage (0.0 - 2.0). Children's behavior at this stage is controlled by feelings and motor activity, children's impressions of their world are formed by perceptions of their feelings. Children's recognition is limited to concrete objects. b. Early operational stage (2.0 – 6.0), where children begin to recognize symbols, including verbal symbols. c. Concrete operations stage (7.0 - 11.0), namely when children begin to compare other people's opinions, begin to be able to differentiate, even though they still depend on concrete problems. d. Formal operations stage (12.0 - and above), namely the development of children's cognition who are able to think abstractly, without being limited to concrete things. (M.I. Soelaeman, 1985; 328) Another expert, Jerome Bruner, put forward three information processing systems by individuals which are related to the development of cognition which will form the structure of recognition of the world. According to Brunner, intellectual development can be explained into three systems or stages, namely: a. Enactive stage, namely the stage of development of children's cognition in understanding the environment through motor responses, b. Iconic stage, namely the development of children's cognition who begin to be able to think on the basis of models, images, or concrete things, c. The symbolic stage, namely the child's thinking stage which is not limited to concrete things, children are able to think abstractly on the basis of language symbols, are able to use language as a thinking tool, so that they can know the level of a person's knowledge structure or vice versa. Piaget's theory is not a learning theory, but has implications for the teaching and learning process. This theory implies that the teaching and learning process must pay attention to the stage of children's cognitive development. Teachers must design learning materials that enable children to develop awareness of their own problems. Teachers have an important role in teaching and learning activities, namely teachers must be more active in teaching and learning activities, choosing learning materials and creating learning situations, so that children are actively involved. Another implication is that teachers must consider the child's thinking abilities according to the child's developmental level. We know that the way elementary school children think will be different from the way junior high school children think or high school level children. Teachers, in terms of children's cognitive development, need to understand the stages of development according to their age. Thus, teachers need to diagnose children's learning difficulties, understand the child's level of thinking ability, and level of maturity both physically and psychologically, to adapt the teaching techniques that will be used. The role of teachers in the teaching and learning process, which is based on Piaget's theory, can be explained as follows: 1) Designing the program, organizing a conducive environment, selecting learning materials, and controlling student activities to carry out inquiry and interaction with the environment, 2) Diagnosing the stage of student development, presenting problems to students that are parallel to their level of development, 3) Encourage student development towards the next development by providing exercises, asking questions and encouraging students to explore. Brunner's stages of intellectual development have implications that are not much different from Piaget's theory. Teachers who teach at the enactive stage create situations that allow students to act in accordance with physically real objects. At the iconic stage, the teacher can present problems through demonstrations or by presenting pictures and models. Meanwhile, at the symbolic stage, the teacher can present problems through verbal language, and students are able to think verbally. Redja Mudyahardjo (1989; 73 – 74) stated that the influence of cognitive learning theory on education is as follows: 1) Individualization: individual treatment is based on the child's level of development, 2) Motivation: learning motivation is intrinsic through the knowledge that is already possessed, 3) Methodology: using curriculum and methods that develop basic thinking skills, and also developing learning materials, 4) Curricular objectives: focus on developing overall abilities, movement, observation, language and thinking. Social interaction is needed in order to develop intelligence, 5) Form of classroom management: child-centered, the teacher's role is to guide children in learning to explore and experiment, 6) Teaching effectiveness: teaching programs are arranged in the form of integrated knowledge, concepts and skills designed hierarchically, 7) Student participation: student participation is primarily required to develop thinking skills, and through study and work, 8) Student learning activities: learning activities prioritize insight and understanding methods, 9) The general goal of education: develop cognitive functions optimally, and use intelligence wisely. 2. Humanistic Psychological Theory Abraham H. Maslow and Carl R. Rogers, are figures of humanism, humanism that human behavior is determined by themselves, by internal factors, and not by environmental conditions or knowledge. Humans who reach the peak of development are those who are able to actualize themselves; able to develop his potential and feel that he is whole, meaningful and functioning (full functioning person). Humanism rejects mechanical learning processes, because learning is a function of the whole person. Learning will not occur if intellectual and emotional factors are not involved in it. This school believes that motivation to learn must come from within the individual himself. Learning will be meaningful, when it involves direct experience, thinking and feeling, of one's own will and involves the entire student's personality. Learning will be meaningful if it is able to penetrate the individual's entire personality (persuasive), changes (attitudes and behavior), are felt by the individual, and allows the individual to carry out self-assessment. This means that meaningful learning is learning that can meet the real needs of individuals. Carl R. Rogers in the Basics of Education (1988; 332), puts forward the following principles of learning: 1) Humans have the urge to learn, curiosity, exploration and assimilation of new experiences, Bel 2) teaching will be meaningful, if what is learned is relevant to the child's needs, 3) Learning is strengthened by reducing external threats, such as punishment, condescending attitudes towards students, ridicule and so on. 4) Learning on your own initiative will involve the whole person, both intellectually and emotionally, 5) Self-reliance, creativity and self-confidence are strengthened by self-assessment. External assessment is secondary. The humanist view of the learning process implies the need to prioritize educational activities and the role of teachers. Humanist education emphasizes balanced growth between cognitive and affective aspects of the content being studied. The role of the teacher is more as a facilitator than as a teacher. The role as a facilitator is in accordance with the principles of Tut Wuri Handayani. The goal of education according to humanists is self-realization, namely a condition where individuals achieve awareness of themselves, the environment and value systems. Individuals who achieve self-realization will feel themselves full of meaning, free, because they are able to live in diversity, aware of responsibility, creative and productive. To achieve this goal, the teacher acts as a resource person, learning facilitator, and not an inspector or instructor who controls the class. If the teacher acts as a facilitator, according to Carl R. Rogers (1985; 334) then he has the following duties: 1) Help create a conducive classroom climate and positive attitude towards learning, 2) Help students classify learning goals, and teachers provide opportunities freely for students to state what they want and want to learn 3) Help students develop their drive and goals as strengths for learning 4) Providing learning resources, including providing himself as a learning resource for students. A learning process based on humanism, emphasizing the importance of interpersonal relationships, an attitude of accepting students as individuals who have abilities, and the role of teachers as participants in the learning process together. In this regard, Carl R. Rogers (1969) suggests several techniques that can help teachers create a classroom climate that allows meaningful learning processes to occur, namely: a. Accept the student's condition as it is, in order to achieve "rapport" (relationship). b. Recognize and nurture students' interests through self-discovery, c. Try to find learning resources that students can possibly get and allow students to choose and use them, d. Use a "discovery" approach, by asking students a problem, then asking controlling questions to help students solve the problem, e. Emphasize the importance of self-assessment, and let students take responsibility for meeting their learning goals. Furthermore, Redja Mudyahardjo (1989; 72-73) describes the influence of humanistic learning theory on education, as follows: 1) Individualization: Individual treatment is based on the needs and development of the child's individuality/personality, 2) Motivation: Motivation to learn is intrinsic and emphasizes the satisfaction of individual needs, 3) Methodology: In educational practice there is more emphasis on a focused project approach, emphasis on studying social life, 4) Curricular goals: Education focuses more on social development, communication skills, responsiveness to group and individual needs 5) Form of classroom management: Child-centered, children are free to choose the areas they will study, while the teacher helps and does not direct, 6) Efforts to make teaching effective: Teaching programs are prepared in the form of integrated top-topics based on the individual needs of children, 7) Student participation: Active participation of students is highly prioritized, and children learn while working, 8) Student learning activities: Prioritize learning through understanding and understanding, and not just acquiring knowledge 9) General goals of education: Education aims to achieve perfection of mind and understanding. 3. Behavioristic learning theory E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner were two psychological figures who held behavioristic views. This school views that human behavior is the result of the formation of environmental conditions. This principle is known as the principle of "operant conditioning" developed by Skinner. Behavior is things that change and can be observed. Behavior is understood in relation to the events that precede it. The main assumptions underlying behaviorism, according to M.I. Soelaeman; (1985; 335) is as follows: 1) Behavior is learned and formed by the existence of an associative bond between stimulus and response (S-R) 2) Humans basically seek pleasure and avoid painful things, 3) Behavior is basically determined by the environment. According to behavioristic learning theory, there are three things that influence a person's learning process, namely: stimulus, response, and consequences. Stimulus is a cue, namely something that comes from the environment that can evoke an individual response. Meanwhile, consequences are something that happens after an individual responds, whether positive or negative. Consequences that provide satisfaction are positive for the individual and will strengthen motivation for further learning, while consequences that do not provide satisfaction tend to be avoided. This principle is called "reinforcement". Learning outcomes are behavior that can be observed (observed) and measured, which implies that the behaviorist learning process emphasizes the importance of academic skills and knowledge and social behavior as learning outcomes. The aim of education according to behaviorism is oriented towards the development of competence, complete mastery (mastery) of what is learned. The aim of education is external, namely formulated and determined based on environmental influences, both socio-cultural and the physical environment. Educational goals ignore students' personal life problems, being more oriented towards goals outside of themselves. Students are deemed not to need to control their own learning. The teacher's role in the learning process is as an initiative taker and process controller. The teacher's duties in this case are as follows: 1) Identify the behavior being studied and formulate it in a specific formula, 2) Identify the expected behavior from the learning process. The forms of competency expected in the field of study are specifically described in small stages. Mastery of skills through these stages is the goal to be achieved in the learning process. 3) Identify adequate reinforcers. Reinforcers can take the form of learning activity subjects, attention and appreciation, and activities chosen by students, 4) Avoiding unwanted behavior by weakening the desired behavior pattern. There are two main things that are implications of behaviorism theory, namely: 1) Modify behavior using specific methods and using a reward system (reinforcer). 2) Programmed teaching which refers to (a) general ways of planning and presenting teaching systems, (b) specific results, programmed texts, or slide film and television shows. One of the implications of behavioristic learning theory is a teaching model using machines, computer teaching, and modular teaching. The influence of behaviorist learning theory on education, as described by Redja Mudyahardjo (1989; 72) can be summarized as follows: 1) Individualization: Individual treatment is based on tasks, rewards and discipline, 2) Motivation: Motivation to learn is extrinsic through continuous habituation (can become reinforcement), 3) Method: Learning methods are described in detail to develop certain skills and knowledge and use educational technology, 4) Curricular goals: Curricular goals, focus on academic knowledge and skills as well as social behavior, 5) Form of classroom management: Centered on the teacher, while social relationships are used as a way of communicating, not as a teaching goal, 6) Efforts to make the class more effective: The teaching program is arranged in detail and in stages, and the learning process prioritizes mastery of the material, 7) Student participation: In general students show passive behavior, 8) Student learning activities: Skill proficiency through gradual habituation, namely carrying out practice step by step in detail, 9) General goals of education: Education aims to achieve the ability to do something or reach a certain level of competence. The behavioristic learning process shows the learning process step by step in detail and is described in a logical sequence of information that will be presented. This principle implies that the curriculum describes more details about what will be presented to students. Each general goal is translated into more specific goals. A field of study is broken down into main topics and sub-topics. Everything is linear with specific goals formulated in advance.