Sociology and the Real World Answer Key Part 2

63. Max Weber believed that as the Industrial Revolution progressed, society became increasingly rationalized. How did he define rationalization? a. an increasing number of rules that limit personal freedom b. an increasing emphasis on verstehen, or the attempt to understand others’ experiences c. the application of psychology to the economy to understand how to increase productivity d. the application of economic logic to all aspects of social life ANS: D 64. Max Weber believed that modern industrialized societies were characterized by which of the following institutions? a. churches b. central governments c. bureaucracies d. prisons ANS: C 65. What did Max Weber mean when he said that modern people are trapped in an “iron cage”? a. Most aspects of life are increasingly controlled by rigid rules and rationalization. b. More and more people live under totalitarian dictators and therefore lose their basic rights and freedoms. c. Increasingly, modern society has more laws and it uses them to put more people in prison. d. The conditions of modern life create a psychic prison that leaves most people discontent with civilization. ANS: A 66. Max Weber helped lay the groundwork for sociologists who would develop symbolic interactionism as a theory because he believed that a social scientist should approach the study of human action a. through a theoretical lens that emphasizes disenchantment and bureaucracy. b. from a value-free point of view. c. with verstehen (understanding), which emphasizes empathy with individuals’ experiences. d. through psychoanalysis and the work of Sigmund Freud. ANS: C 67. What did W. E. B. Du Bois have in common with Harriet Martineau? a. Both made careers of studying race and racism. b. Both were from the American South. c. Both saw symbolic interactionism as the most promising aspect of social theory. d. Both were intrigued by America’s democratic promise, but disappointed in its hypocritical injustices. ANS: D 68. Jane Addams was an early advocate of applied sociology. This means that she did not just do research but that she also a. reported illegal activities to the proper authorities. b. examined the historical origins of the phenomena she researched. c. addressed social problems through hands-on activity in the communities she researched. d. compared the communities she studied to communities from other cultures. ANS: C 69. What is the term used to describe sociological research that is intended to solve social problems, such as the research done by Jane Addams? a. practical sociology b. postmodern sociology c. moral sociology d. applied sociology ANS: D 70. Although she made contributions to sociology, Jane Addams is perhaps best remembered for her embrace of praxis, which means that she a. was a pragmatist. b. acted on her intellectual convictions in practical ways. c. applied dialectics to her understanding of history. d. embraced conflict theory. ANS: B 71. What school of social theory believes that society is a stable system of structures, which contribute to the equilibrium of the whole? a. symbolic interactionism b. dramaturgy c. structural functionalism d. conflict theory ANS: C 72. Critical race theory is associated with which of the major theoretical perspectives or schools of thought in sociology? a. structural functionalism b. conflict theory c. functional theory d. symbolic interactionism ANS: B 73. Structural functionalist theory is concerned with the ways in which structures contribute to the stability of society. What is a structure? a. a social institution that is stable over time and helps meet the needs of society b. any aspect of society that generates conflict or change c. a class hierarchy d. an informal agreement between people over a wide geographical area ANS: A 74. According to Robert Merton, which of these statements about manifest functions is true? a. Manifest functions usually have something to do with social conflict and change. b. Manifest functions are intended and obvious. c. Manifest functions are designed to alleviate inequality. d. Manifest functions are designed to critique the social system that produced them. ANS: B 75. Which of the following is a latent function of the educational system in the United States? a. teaching reading and writing b. keeping children out of trouble while parents are at work c. preparing a modern workforce to use technology d. teaching new immigrants about American values and history ANS: B 76. Which of the following is the most serious critique of structural functionalism? a. It tends to argue that intellectuals should act on what they believe. b. It overemphasizes the importance of the economy. c. It fails to provide a universal social theory. d. It tends to argue that any social feature that exists must serve a function. ANS: D 77. Which of the following theories views society as a whole unit made up of interrelated parts that work together? a. structural functionalism b. conflict theory c. symbolic interactionism d. postmodernism ANS: A 78. Some Marxists believe that conflict between small merchants and the nobility led to the creation of modern capitalism, which was distinct from either of the opposing forces. What would Marx call this model of historical change? a. a critical model b. a dialectical model c. a class consciousness model d. a nihilist model ANS: B 79. In his Theses on Feuerbach, Karl Marx argued that “the philosophers have only interpreted the world, the point is to change it.” What Marxist principle is defined by this quote? a. verstehen b. rationalization c. praxis d. conflict ANS: C 80. Which of the following theories focuses on how our behaviors are dependent on the ways we interpret, make sense of, and define ourselves, others, and social situations? a. conflict theory b. symbolic interactionism c. pragmatism d. structural functionalism ANS: B 81. Which social theory focuses on micro-level interactions? a. symbolic interactionism b. structural functionalism c. conflict theory d. pragmatism ANS: A 82. According to symbolic interactionism, what is the relationship between the self and society? a. The development of a sense of self is guided by society. b. The self is shaped by society, but society is also shaped by the self. c. Both the self and society are created by the course of history. d. Both the self and society are shaped by larger external forces. ANS: B 83. The theory of symbolic interactionism was developed by a. the Chicago School of sociology. b. the French positivists. c. structural functionalists. d. queer theorists. ANS: A 84. Symbolic interactionism argues that people act toward things on the basis of their meaning. According to this perspective, how does meaning arise? a. Meaning is inherent in objects and actions. b. Meaning is learned through the study of philosophy and history. c. Meaning is negotiated through interaction with others. d. Meaning is learned through the study of science and nature. ANS: C 85. A dishonest judge must pretend to be an honest judge, but even an honest judge must play the role of “honest judge” for an audience in order to interact and work with others effectively. This performance is an example of what theoretical perspective? a. structural functionalism b. dramaturgy c. ethnomethodology d. conflict theory ANS: B 86. What is the link between feminist theory and conflict theory? a. They both see the economy as central to the functioning of society. b. They both seek to not only understand inequality but also to remedy it. c. They both see gender as the most important aspect of social identity. d. They both were developed at about the same time. ANS: B 87. Why is the term “queer” used to describe queer theory? a. It emphasizes that some people are born with a fixed orientation and cannot change it. b. It emphasizes the importance of difference and rejects a single gay or lesbian identity. c. It is an easily definable category. d. It has a long history of use within the gay and lesbian community. ANS: B 88. What is a sociologist’s theoretical perspective if he or she argues we have seen the “dissolution of master narratives or metanarratives”? a. feminist theory b. conflict theory c. structural functionalism d. postmodernism ANS: D 89. The application of economic logic to human activity is known as a. Weberian theory. b. critical theory. c. class consciousness. d. social Darwinism. ANS: A 90. Sarah believes that thanks to the ability of science and technology to create progress, problems will be solved and life will improve. Sarah would best be described as a a. Marxist. b. positivist. c. modernist. d. postmodernist. ANS: C 91. Postmodernists are interested in ________, or taking apart and examining stories and theories. a. dramaturgy b. praxis c. antitheses d. deconstruction ANS: D TRUE/FALSE 1. C. Wright Mills described a process by which biography (individual lives) and history (larger social forces) are related. He argued that this process works in two ways: individual lives influence society, while society also influences individuals. ANS: T 2. A sociologist’s responsibility is to question everything the everyday person would take for granted. ANS: T 3. There is only one correct theoretical explanation for any particular social phenomenon. ANS: F 4. The writings of Émile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber were deeply influenced by their life experiences. ANS: T SHORT ANSWER 1. Émile Durkheim’s pioneering study Suicide used statistical data to look for correlations between demographic variables and suicide. In what ways is his work compatible with Auguste Comte’s ideas about how society should be studied? ANS: When he conducted his infamous suicide study in 1897, Durkheim used Comte’s theory of positivism in the manner Comte intended. Positivism was a concrete form of social research that suggested social life could be studied in a manner comparable to the hard sciences. 2. In what ways does queer theory suggest that no category of sexual identity is fundamentally deviant or normal?ANS: According to queer theory, sexuality is a social construct. Therefore, it is fluid and is viewed differently according to the social structure of the time period. Because these views are constantly changing, conventional dichotomies of gay and straight are limited in defining human sexual preferences and sexual involvement. 3. How is hip-hop music an example of a postmodern art form? ANS: Hip-hop uses several genres of music, such as reggae and rock, and it overlays beats and words to create new sounds from old, established musical forms. 4. According to conflict theory, how do most major social institutions remain integrated into the economy and therefore reinforce the class structure? ANS: Conflict theorists believe that the capitalist system of for-profit businesses causes mass poverty and class division. Karl Marx argued that capitalism, which emerged during the Industrial Revolution, enabled the owners of the means of production (the bourgeoisie) to exploit the masses of workers (the proletariat), creating an inherently unequal system of social class. Also, false consciousness can lead oppressed people to accept inequality and not challenge their position in the class structure. 5. Why do structural functionalists argue that dysfunction tends to create social change? ANS: When one structure of society encounters a disruption, there is a ripple effect across all social structures. This leads to the need for social change so that social systems may restore balance. For example, if a country goes to war, there will be a deficit in the economy. As a result, money available for education decreases as tax dollars are given to the military; soldiers die, resulting in single-parent, single-income households; and people begin to struggle with their religious beliefs, reducing involvement in the volunteer structure of communities. The system will fight for equilibrium and will eventually function, albeit in a different manner than it did before the war. 6. How does taking the sociological perspective enable sociologists to understand human life in society? ANS: Taking the sociological perspective enables sociologists to view the world through a beginner’s mind. By eliminating their personal experiences, opinions, and biases, they are able to learn about the familiar world in new ways. 7. What are we failing to see, according to C. Wright Mills, when we think of our personal problems as character flaws? ANS: Mills argued that we need to view our personal problems through the larger perspective of how they are related to the social structure in which we live and the historical context of our society. 8. What are the advantages of midrange theory? ANS: Midrange theory merges micro and macro levels of analysis. This approach to theorizing makes sociological research more feasible because it does not simply rely on the polarities of small- and large-scale analyses. 9. According to Erving Goffman’s theory of dramaturgy, why might you dress differently for a date than you would for a sociology class? ANS: Goffman believed that the self is created through our interactions with other people and how we present ourselves changes depending on the social context. Because a sociology class is an informal social setting, you can wear casual attire without paying heed to your hair and/or makeup. On the other hand, your clothing and grooming choices for a date would be significantly different. In this case, you would want to a make a good impression, so you would present yourself in a way that emphasizes your positive personal qualities. 10. Describe the three main theoretical perspectives of macrosociology and name at least one theorist for each perspective. ANS: Conflict theory, which emphasizes social inequality as the basic characteristic of society, developed out of the work of Karl Marx. Structural functionalism looks at society as a unified whole that needs separate structures to function. Robert Merton, a well-known sociologist who developed strain theory, would be considered a structural functionalist. Weberian theory, which derives its name from Max Weber, studied the process of rationalization and bureaucracies. ESSAY 1. The sociological perspective, as a way of thinking about the world, includes the concepts of sociological imagination from C. Wright Mills, beginner’s mind from Bernard McGrane, and culture shock from anthropology. Define each concept in your own words and then explain what all three of these concepts have in common. ANS: Social imagination is about looking for connections between the personal and the social. Beginner’s mind is a technique for ignoring old knowledge in order to find new ways of seeing the world. Culture shock is a way of seeing things as if we had never seen them before. All three concepts advocate ways of thinking that help us clear away preconceptions that may be blocking us from seeing and understanding things that are directly in front of us. They all help us achieve a sociological perspective. 2. Consider the contrast between practical knowledge and scientific knowledge. Describe an activity or social phenomenon of which you have practical knowledge and then list the steps you might take to develop scientific knowledge of it. Describe how your knowledge might change as you develop this scientific approach to the subject and demonstrate that you understand the difference between the two types of knowledge. ANS: Any answer should demonstrate knowledge of some everyday activity the student can use in a functional way but about which he or she does not have completely coherent, excruciatingly clear, consistent, or complete knowledge. Examples of ways to develop scientific knowledge could include schools, bookstores, libraries, or some other source of learning. 3. Sociologists often have to decide if they are going to adopt a microsociological or macrosociological approach in any given project. Explain how these perspectives differ, paying special attention to the different assumptions about how society works that are contained within each perspective. In other words, considering the starting point of each perspective, what do they seek to reveal? ANS: Microsociology focuses on the interactions between individuals, whereas macrosociology examines large-scale social structures. Microsociologists tend to think that individual-level interactions create the larger patterns, processes, and institutions of society. Macrosociologists tend to assume that large social structures create the context and conditions within which individuals act. 4. Compare and contrast conflict theory with structural functionalism. Pay special attention to the way each theory treats the origin of social change. ANS: Structural functionalism begins with the study of structures identified as social institutions. Any answer should emphasize that society is a stable, ordered system of interrelated parts or structures and that each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability or equilibrium of the whole. Conflict theory treats social conflict as the basis of society and suggests that disagreements over values and beliefs actually reflect struggles over resources and power. Conflict theory emphasizes a materialist view of society based on the economy, a critical stance toward the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change. Conflict theorists see social change as the inevitable consequence of the struggle over resources. 5. Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level approach to sociology. It sees face-to-face interactions as the building blocks of larger social institutions. Describe how individuals interacting with each other can produce larger social institutions. Pick an example and describe how specific social acts can, when repeated by many people, create largescale social structures. ANS: The textbook uses the example of the meaning of a tree to demonstrate the relationship between “meaning” and “interaction.” The key point is that society and the self are twinborn—social structures that only exist because they are created through individual action. 6. According to symbolic interactionism, describe how meaningful reality is created. ANS: The textbook uses the example of how a tree can mean different things to different people in different social situations. We act toward things on the basis of their meaning, which is not inherent in the things themselves but is negotiated through interaction and can change or be modified over time. This demonstrates that meaningful reality is created through interaction. 7. Classical sociological theory arose in the nineteenth century in the aftermath of the American and French revolutions and during the Industrial Revolution. Summarize how the theories of Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber all reflect a concern for the consequences of modern life. ANS: The textbook describes several concepts from each theorist that relate directly to the problems of modern life. Marx focused on the alienation and social inequality created by the rise of urban capitalism and on how false consciousness and ideology contributed to the oppression of the working classes. Weber was concerned about how the shift to a modern industrialized society resulted in disenchantment with the world as well as the “iron cage” of bureaucratic rules. Durkheim theorized that anomie, or normlessness resulting from social disconnection, was a consequence of the transition from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. 8. Structural functionalism attempts to explain the social world by examining social structures, which perform functions that contribute to the stability of society as a whole. What are some of the types of functions that social structures can perform? ANS: The textbook examines two ways of categorizing functions. First, Talcott Parsons proposed that social structures can fulfill such functions as helping us adapt to our environment and providing us with opportunities to realize goals. They also contribute to the equilibrium of society by increasing social cohesion and maintaining cultural patterns. Second, Robert Merton theorized that functions performed by social structures can be either manifest (intended) or latent (unintended). 9. According to Karl Marx, what is the relationship between the economy and other parts of society including intellectual, religious, and political life? ANS: Marx argued that because the ruling class controls the economy, it controls the rest of society as well. Therefore, he argued that the dominant ideology justifies and benefits those who own the means of production, religion is used by the ruling class to create false consciousness and perpetuate oppression of the working class, and the prevailing ideas are the ideas of the ruling class. Answers might also explain the distinction between false consciousness (a denial of the truth about the real circumstances in which one lives) and class consciousness, which is an understanding of the economic exploitation inherent in capitalism. 10. Describe the sociological theories that developed from symbolic interactionism. What do they have in common and how do they further the perspective? ANS: There are three offshoots of symbolic interactionism described in the textbook: Erving Goffman’s theory of dramaturgy, Harold Garfinkel’s theory of ethnomethodology, and the theory of conversation analysis. Each theory emphasizes “social acts rather than social facts,” demonstrating that larger social institutions are constantly made and remade through individual actions and interactions. They expand on the original ideas of symbolic interactionists by reinforcing specific aspects of culture as meaningful and important in the formation of society. 11. Describe the main features of postmodern social theory and explain both positive and negative reactions to postmodernism. ANS: In postmodern theory, social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux. In postmodernism, there are no absolutes—no claims to truth, reason, right, order, or stability. Everything is therefore relative—fragmented, temporary, situational, provisional, and contingent. Postmodernists believe that certainty is illusory and they prefer to explore the possibilities created by fluidity, complexity, multidimensionality, and even nonsense. They propose that there is no constant or universal human truth from which we can know or interpret the meaning of existence. For proponents, postmodernism can be celebrated as a liberating influence that can rescue us from the stifling effects of rationality, essentialism, and tradition. For opponents, it can be condemned as a detrimental influence that can imprison us in a world of relativity, nihilism, and chaos. 12. If you were feeling very generous to shoe manufacturers, you might argue that the manifest function of the production of newer and more expensive athletic shoes is to increase athletic performance. For a moment, let’s not be generous. Explain another manifest function of the appearance of new athletic shoes and at least two latent functions. ANS: A manifest function is the obvious, intended function of a social structure, whereas a latent function is the less obvious and sometimes unintentional function. In this case, the obvious manifest function would be to increase revenue for makers of athletic apparel. The latent functions might include increased jealousy and competition among teenagers, violence and muggings in order to obtain shoes, teenage boys showing increased fashion consciousness, and the creation of a subculture that bonds over its interest in shoes. 13. Identify and describe the most essential elements of the theories of the classical sociological thinkers—Marx, Durkheim, and Weber. How do their visions of modernity differ? ANS: Marx’s conflict theory centers on alienation (the sense of dissatisfaction workers feel when they are producing goods that are controlled by someone else). Durkheim’s theory of structural functionalism focuses on anomie (the loss of norms and purpose that results from weaker social ties and an increased pace of change). Weberian theory emphasizes that modern industrialized society controls our lives through rigid rules and rationalization, trapping us in a so-called iron cage of bureaucracy.