Notes Quiz 3 - Blood Vessels & Circulation

Quiz 3 Blood Vessels & Circulation: Distribution of Fluid in the body. Female: 457. Solids, 557. Fluids-2/ intracellular Fluid (ICF), 's extracellular fluid-50% interstitial fluid, 20%. Plasma Interstitial Fluid: fluid between the blood vessels and cells, consists of H₂O, nutrients, hormones, enzymes wastes Blood vessels: Need to be resilient and flexible: Resilient: to withstand pressure of the blooll passing through and pressure Changes. Flexibilling: to accommodate other Hesues around them Terms to Know: Anastomosis: the joining of 2 vessels; a connection betsveen vessels (without an intervening capillary bed)-Collateral: more than one artery supplying an area (if theres a blochage in regular vessel so we use this) Angiogenesis: the formation of neko blood vessels, controlled by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) can be used to bypass a blockage, seen in cancer makes their own blood Supply. ArteriovenouS Artery: blood vessele that carry blood away from the heart and toward a peripheras capillary: highest pressure vessels, contains a 5 types of Blood vessels lot of Clastic Fibers to strech and recail Arteriole a small arteril branch that delivers blood to a capillary network: mostly carries of except when it goes to lungs Capillary: a small blood vessed, located between an arteriale and venule, whose thin walls allow for the diffusion of gases, nutrients, and swastes between plasma and interstitial fluid (exchange vessels) venule: thin walled vein that receives blood from capillaries; venutes unite to form langer veins vein: a blood vessel carrying blood from a capillary bed toward the heart, contains valves: pushes blood back up to heart Distinguishing Arteries from Veins: most arteries and veins run parallel to each other Arteries carry blood Away from the heart, veins carry blood toward the heart Walls of arteries are thicker than veins endothelial lining of arteries have pleated folds, veins don't. Constrict artery= the muscle contracts, the endothelium has pleats to allow blood flow vessel Walls: 3 layers. 1. Tunica intima: innermost layer, Endothelium; simple squamous epithelium (diffusion) & thin lager of connective tissues with elastic fibers, if arteries contract, the endothelium doesn't move Perentes folds 2 Tunica media: thickest layer. (thicker in arteries; providing circular structure white veins collapse casier) Composed of elastic Fibers 8 smooth muscle tissue which cause vasoconstriction and vasodilation. 3. Tunica externa(ana adventitia): Outermost layer, Composed of connective tissue with elastic fibers; Anchors the vessel to surrounding tissues. vasa Nasorum For bigger vessels. of vessels, the heart gets nutrients from vessels on the outside; smaller vessels supply nutrients Arteries. 1. Elastic arteries: Largest arteries, transport blood away from the heart. These arteries have bis of elastic fibers and Peau smooth marscle fibers. For Stretch and recoil. 2. Muscular artories: Medican arteries; thicker tunica media (more smooth muscle) allowing for vasoconstriction and vasodilation. 3. Arterioles small arteries carnifing blood from muscular arteries to the capillaries; tunica media has less smooth muscle and less tunica externa. Arterioles branch isto metarterides which connect to capillaries. Vasodilation vs. Vasoconstriction: Vasodilation: increase in diameter of arterioles due to relaxation of smooth muscles in tunica media. vasoconstriction: a reduction in the diameter of arterioles due to the conhaction of smooth muscles in tunica media Both occur in response to local factors, hormones and stimulation of vasomotor center in medulla oblongata, Affects afterload, peripheral blood pressure and capillary blond flow Capillaries: Exchange vessels, smallest in diameter, single ayer of simple squamous epitheliver surrounded by a basement membrase. found throughout the body, more extensively in highly active tissues (muscles, brain, Kidneys, liver) 3 types: 1) continuous typical, no gaps, blood stays in, gas nutrients out. Ex: Blood-Benin Barrier 2) fenestrated: porous (holes), allows for rapid exchange of Heo Balutes Mat cverything am pats through. 3) Sinasoid discontinuous epithelium, and gaps in basement membrane ex: liver, spleen, etc. Capillary Bed: Network of capillaries connecting melarterioles to verules. The opening of each capillary has a precapillary sphincter (contreis amount of blood flow through the capillang) Precapillary sphincter contracts (constricts) and relaxes (dilates) several times a minute so that blood Hows through pulsing. (autoregulation) venules: Smallest veins, carries blood from capillaries to larger veins. lack tunica media (no smooth muscle). veins. veins return blood to the heart medium sized veins: tunica media is thin few smooth muscle fiber; thicken layer is tunica externa Large veins: all 3 layers are thickest Low pressure system: 10% pressure of arteries, in venules and medium sized veins, blood pressure is too low to overcome gravity: tunica intima have venous valves to prevent backflow of blood, also by skeletal muscle movement. Distribution of Blood Volume: 30-35%. in arteries and capillaries 65-70% in Veins: are more distensible, thinner wais, less muscular; able to expand 8x as much, acts as a blood reservoir Tissue Perfusion: the blood flow to the tissues ensuring the needs for oxygen and nutrients are being met. Blood Flow: Adequate blood flow is needed to ensure adequate perfusion of tissue (oxygen supply) Cardiac Output=&Capillang Blood Flow Capillary blood flow depends on pressure (amount of force from heart to determine blood flow) and resistance (more resistante: less flow, ex Clots.) BP: the force exerted by blood against a vessel wall, BP generated by the heart matit be enough to overcome the resistance present in the blood wine Arterial Blood Pressure: Systolic Blood Pressure: Peak pressure exerted by ejected blood against vessel walls during cardiac systole. Average = 120mmHg, (Systolic pressure of ventricular satole) Diastolic Blood Pressure: minimum pressure in arteries when blood is draining off into vessels downstream. Average 80 mmHe (diastolic pressure at ventricular diastole) SBP>140 mmHg hypertension SBP290mmHg-hypotension Pulse Pressure: The difference between SBP and DBP; measures the strength of pulse wave Mean Arterial Pressure: Average arterial pressure through one cardiac cycle; used to calculate overall blood flow and as an indicator of perfusion-Average minimum of 65mmHg Factors affecting Blood Pressure: 1. Cardiac Output 2. Resistance: resistance to the flow of blood through small vessels is called peripheral resistance. Autoregulation: Mechanisms that cause immediate, localized homeostatic adjustments (via vasodilation and constriction) Precapillary Sphincters = vasomotion: local vasodilation may cause dilation of precapinary sphincters, if theres REFLEXES: Baroreceptors when BP4: stretch Ton carotid sinus + aortic arch-Baroreceptor firing-signal to medulla+PWS ON Brate Applied SNS OFF HR+ CO vasodilation -8P Baroreceptors when BP: strecht on carotid sinus + aortic arch Baroreceptor Firing & signal to medulla PNSOFF SNS ON HR COt vasoconstriction-BPP move heart pumps kardar Chemoreceptors when CO₂TOR Ost OR PH: Co Highbre 1-Cardiovascular: Sampathetic activation HRTCOP-vasstanstrictionT-BPT 2. Respiratorgi medalla center stimulated-Resp-rate-pblow off CO₂-Preturn to narmas Endocrine hormones that change BP. 1. Adrenal Medulla (Epis Medulla (Epi NE): triggered by SNS-Hat-cot-vasanaviction BPP ADH: Released when BPlanlanays Reap water-visecentrician B RAAS (Renin-Atensin desterone sygicm) riggered any low BP, 1. kidneys release renin 2. Ronin-Angiotensin 1 3. ACE-Angiotensin II. ADHY vasoconstriction, Aldosteronet. Thirst-Pangiot Hypertension: BP greater than 140/90 mmilg 2 topes: Primary Hypertension cause is normally not related to a specific disease/diagnosis (unspot)causes olich, family history, st Secondary Hypertension: 10%. of the time. Occurs Secondary to another known primary problem (Ross or codocrine hypertension) Hypotensión: EP below 100/00 mmHg wdccurs amante little blood to fill the vessels, heart heart is too was to drive the blood LrOrthostatic (postural) hypotension; insufficient compensatary response to gravitational shifts in blood when a person mores from horisesbal to vertical position Edema:abnormal in interstitial fluid that can occur if filtration (Fluid leaving the capillaries) exceeds reabsorption (fluid moving into the capillaries) Excess filtration (From Hypertension, permeability of captitacoes) or inadequate remptorption ( plasma proveis) Pulmonary Circuit: As blood leaves the right remricle, it exits via the swimon pulmonary treomh which branches into the left and right pulmonary arteries (carrying deoxygenated blood toward the lungs) 2. Oxygenated blood returning From the lungs to the heart does so via pulmonary veins which empty into the atrium Systemic Circuit. off me ascending nevta. leaves the left ventrists, it does sa via the asending aor. The left and rigur coronary arterics branch sonilleman Cocott and me 2. The ascending aorta curves into the cortic arch, Prom which the lovachiocephalic irsenk fen the right), let common caratial, and the left ontbclavian arteries avise σίλης πετρελαινian amery arisé. The brechincephalic runh divides Ines the r 3. The descending ner to gives rise to the thoracic norte and the sodominal corta. 4. The abdominal corto eventually branches into the Ict and right illac arteries. Right common carotid Right subclavian Brachiocephalic trunk ASCENDING AORTA Right coronary Posterior intercostal Th Left common carotid Left subclavian ARCH OF AORTA Bronchial Left coronary Mediastinal Pericardial Superior phrenic Fetal Circulation: Foramen Ovale: air bypasses lungs-flap-like opering in sternum RA straight to LA Ductus arteriosus bypassing lungs-connects to aorta lungs + digestive aren't functioning yet 2 umbilical arteries and I umbilical vein o Deoxygenated, back to the placenta to be replenished Learygendled bread I-n adulthood: Lofessa ovalis: The dip omare foramen ovale ased to be. ligament arteriosum: was the duchas a Descending 4 pulses Lymphatic System: Overview: referred to as the lymphoid system Leindudes lymphoid calls, lymphoid tissues & organs, lymph, and lymphatic vessels Functions: Production, maintenance and distribution of lymphocytes (contal to immuras function and defense against threats). Ensuring stable blood volume and comparable interstitial composition throughout the body. Assists in transport of hormones, matricats and waste produckt Lymph: the fluid contents of lymphatic vessels, consists of interstitial Flowk, Igomphocytes, and macrophages Lymphatic Vessels: begin at or pass through lymphatic tissues and organs, network of vessels that begin at the peripheral tissues and to the veins. Lymphoid Colls: lymphocytes, phagocytes, and a small if of other cells. Lymphoid Tissues and Organs: Primary; sites where lymphocytes form and mature (red bone marrow, ymus) secondary: sites where igmphocytes are activated (tonsila, MALT. lymph nodes, spiten) Lymph: Similar to plasma, except: Higher in lymphocytes: transports them Rich in fats (triglycerides) trasports for from S.I. to biner areas to be used High in cenus & proteins: reatore details and proteins where does lymph come from: 95% H20- interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic space Lymphatic Vessels: Begins with capillaries, capillaries combine to form larger lymphatic vessels, Fluid flows through lymph nodes (one way) Circulation of Lumph Cosch-ended tubes, present in almost all tissues throughost body (Absent in the areas with no blood suppig) lined with teasaly bound enthotnesial cells and incomplete (or sinent) basement membrane, has thinner walls and longer lumen than blood capillories Small lymphatic vessela: carry lymph from lymphatic capillaries toward trunk, 3 layers to swabs (similar to vein), but are smaller and moR prevalent than veins, small inedium vessels also have valves (low pressure system) Le Major lymph-collecting vessels: Collecting vessels menje to form langer vessels called lymphatic trants-rempty into 2 langer collecting vessels: 2. Right lymphatic dack Lymphatic Trunks: jugular (neck), Subclavian (under clavicle), bronchomediocidal (lung ano), intestinal (intestines), lumbar (lower back) 42. Ducts: Thoracic (left lymphatic duck) receives lymph from the upper left side of the body and both sides interior to the ribs; longest everyming belt upper rigar side-s Right Lymphatic Duck receives lymph from the upper right alde of the body, located near the right clavide Lymphedema: obstruction of a lymph vessel-rswelling, buildup of interstitial Pluid Lymphoid Cells: Lymphocytes are the main colls involved in the Immune response 43 classes: T-cells (from thegnus), 8-celts (from bone marrow), Naturen vimer (wth) cells (From lount marrow) 7-cells and B-cells protect the body against antigons Orner lympincial cens: LoT-colis manage Hee imminee response and attack foreign c cells le-ceila pradece prasime ceila, which scorsie aminudies to immutiles antigers. macrophages: phagocytice Aureige bubstances new activere T-cells dendritic Hic Calls: simior to macrophages reticular ceus, Sepport calls for over Lane in lymphoid tissues Lymph Cells in Action 1. Immune surveillance Nicess attack foreign cells, body cells indecked by vintres, and cancer cells. They Secsere chemicals thar lyse (destroy) the plasma membrane of abnormal osils 2.Antibody-mediated Immunity: stimulated, 8 con differentiate into plasma ceus, which produce and secrete atsibodies. These on belles con differentiate choàn reaction that leads to the destruction of the bodies atracy to pathogens. This shorts a 3.Cell-mediated immunity: ane type of mature Teen called cytotoxic Teens, plays a role in cell-mediated in imamuning. These colis attack and destroy Poreign ows or brully cells cells infectel Lymphoid Tissues & Organs: Lymphoid tissues: connective tissures dominated by lymphocytes Lymphoid nodules: lymphocytes densely packed in arcolar tissue, with germinal center where dividing non-mature lymphocytes are housed. Lotissues: Mucosa-associated lymphoid HSSUES (MALT) LoOrgans: Lymph nodes, Thymus MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue): lymphatic nodules associated with mucous membranes (eg. digestive, respinatory, reproductive, urinary tracts) proteas the epithelia, gets rid of toxins, peuer's patches in intestines clusters of MALT called aggregated lymphoid nodules/ExAppendix and to Tonsils: 5 lange lymphoid nodules in wall of larynx. Secondary lymphatic tissue, where mature lymphocytes are held and acts here but aren't made here. Theres Red Bone Marrow: primary lymphatic organ (where lymphocytes form and Ipharyngeal (adenoid), 2 palatine, 2 lingual mature) Thymus: primary lymphoid organ, located in mediastinum (just posterior to sternum) most active in childhood and atrophies in adulthood. Produces thymic hormones Cimportant for the development of TCells) Hormone: Trymosin Stem cells T-Cells Tcells mature in cortex and migrate to the medulla, from where they can enter the circulation, Blood-themus barrier separates the maturing cells Prom circulation. When activated, Tcells divide and produce more Tcells-raiso secrete cytonines (immune medlators that sinal chanal for more immune activity and inflammation) Spleen. Secondary lymphoid organ (where lymphocytes are activated) Largest lymphoid Навиг Functions: remove aldnormal blood cells and other components to phogocytesis, there iron recycled Prom blood cells, initiates immune response by B-cell Tcenscin response to antigens in circulating e Lo Made of red puip (RBC-rich) and white pulp (resembles lymphoid nodule) within a capsule, tad pulp corising a meshwork off reticular Thors-band peases mrough meshwark and enters Sinusoide lined with macrophages sinusoids empty invs amall veins and then woulde veins. Blood flow through spleen gives phagocytes time to recognize and engulf damaged or infected reas in the blood-triggers Further Iwment capense. Lolots of sinusoids Lymph Nodes'small lympnoid organs in its own protedive tissue capsule, dip=hilum filled with sinuses Bromind 600 in body, mostly found in neck, axillae (armpits), and groin Epperent lymphatic veaseisowny From lymph node Le functions filter purifg lumen-belore in reaches veins Lolymphocytes residing in the lymph node attach and seaway pathogens Apferent lymphatic vessels-to lymph node Leprotect entrances and monitor lymph Lymphadenitis: Swollen glands, nodes 9 in size in event of pathogenic invasion/infection due to Ilympracyte division and activation Innate Peven nate Immunity: Mon-Specific, physical barriers to phagocytes, NK cells, immune surveillance, interferons, inflammaλίση, απ LeDetect unfamiliar antigens (not selectively), responding faster than T-cells or B-cells Generalized attack, Perforin (pokes holes) and protection (sinds inactivates perforih so it doesn't wet Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity. Depends on the response of T-cells and B-cells in order to organice defense against specific pathogen/antigen Ledevelop after birth, when an antigen triggers an immane response, it will activove both T-crus and Borus First (faster) to to attack, the antigen and stimulate activation of B-cells, Brolls will matare into antibody-producing plasma calls, with antibodies moring to bloodstream to carry out an attack when needed. Le Characteristics of Adaptive immuning Specificity: Not all lymphocytes are activated at the same time, the shape and size of the antigen determines what lymphocyte -Versatilis diverse and wilgine range 3. mamary groups ove group αλαδες NOW, over mugs active and recognise if he infected again (memory) tolerance: willing to reagonist your own (Pear) cells Types of Adaptive Immunity: 1. Cell-Mediated Immunity: when they get into the cell.. LOT-CELLS: Cytotoxic T-celns: Direct cellular attack Helper T-ceus: "Calls for help", stimulates response of Beelle omer T-cells Regulatory T-Cells: monitoring Cells, maintains balance Memory T-cells makes copies of antigens if a reaccuring infection. 2. Antibody Mediated (Human) Immensity: Outside the cell LB-cous: when a B-call (memory OR plasmic), it wil make copies of itself that are sensitive to a specific antigen. LrCan be active or passive: 1. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity: Develops after exposure to antigens in the environment 2. Artificially Acquired Active Immurrity Develops after immunization of an antigen to prevent disease 3. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity. Conferved by transfer of matemal antibodies across pucents or in breast milk 4. Artificially Acquined Passive Immunity: Conferred by administration of antisadies to combat infection The Respiratory System Organization-2 1. Structurally: divided into the upper (nast, naenl cavity, pharynx) and lower (larynx, frachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and antoli) 2. Functionally divided into the conduchon (air to and from the tangs) and Respuльном (ges exchange: Heinner bronchioles, oven) Upper Respiratory Track: Hose & Masal Carity: Functions; to warm, humidify, and filter airso dry, cold air doesn't reach the lungs, to defend against pathogens External Nose: Mares (nostrils-prismara passageway) Nasal Septum: Separates the nares (coarse hairs to map fontign bodies, built on cartilaginous framework Internal Host: Nasal cavity, internal nares-communicate with me phargin 3 shelves (ridges) along the lateral walls to create turbulence to increase the chance that particles get stuck in the mucus layer-it also Superior 3. Hide, 3. Inferior a concha ephnoid, Sphenold and hard palate which separates nasal and onal cavity. The nasal cavity is formed by The Cheance is the connection between between natalon carity Majority of the upper respiratory tract is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium wit secreres mucus which helps to moisturize Letraps Fonsign airborne particles that could damage the system. Cilia sweep the mucus toward the pharyny where it is sumowed-mucochlary escalator Lelamina propeas basement membrane-archers, highly uscular, superficial Paranasal Sinuses: LeAir convines (paired strachung) in ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal and masillary bones. LeLined with mucous membranes LrOpen into the nasal cavity Resonating Chambers for voice Le Functions: Lo Decrease weight of the Skull Pharynx: LoCommon passageway connecting nose, mouth and threat Lo Functions: LyPassagewas for food and air Lo Allows for sound resonation Le Contains tonsils (lymphatic tissue involved in immune defense) LoNasopharynx: the back of the nose, contains pharyngeal opening of Eustachian tubes, pseudostratified siliated columnar epithelium, passage fordin Le Oropharynx: the back of the mouth, consists of pharyngeal arch and unuia, stratified squamous epithelium LoLaryngopharyne: the area that has the entrance to the trachea and esophagus, stratified squamous epithelium Larynx: Functions: Production of sound (Voice box), conduction of air into lower resp. tract, protection of airway from swathowed material epiglottis Location: begins where the pharynx ends (bordered superiorly by the saryngopharyns and inferiorty by iracoca), bendered posteriorig by the esophagus-only air goes through Structure: Cylinder composed of cartilage, ligaments, and muscle Cartilages of the larynx: Thyroid Cartilage: contains the laningeal prominence (adanis apyte), hyntine cartilage 4Cricoid Cartilage: Encircles the traches, hyaline cartilage Le Epiglottis. Closes over the glottis during swallowing of foodreroutes liquids food Elastic Cartilage Trachea: windpipe LySplits into 2 main bronchi at end Composed of: Mucosal lar lestratifiad calumear with citia & goanet (s) cant whyaling carhiage-16-30 incomplate ring-p Snap feeding the esophagus to allove it to expand to let fasten Letracheal's muscles-contrast te diameter is conimned by parastigmpatetic nerve thers so flood can go doon esophagus eatice Primary Bronchi: UpComposed op: comitage-Pincomplete ring, pseudostratified ciliated columnor epitheticum, smooth muscle-complete ring Primang bronchi enter the hilum of each lung Carina-Exists at the point where the trachce vides ins voru sensitive mucoas memind depression threnes which bronchi, nerves, blood vessels and lymphatics awhar/leave the lung me primary branchiintermate is called the corina-covered in The Bronchial Tree: 1. Primary Bronch-branch from machen (one to coch lung) 2. Secondary Bronchi-supply each lobe of tungs Lebeft Long- has 2 lobes (ANA 1. Secondary bronchi) Lo Right Lung- has 3 lobes (and 3 secondary bronchi) 3. Tertiary Bronchi-Supply each bronchopulmary segment, divide inte koronchialts 4.Bronchioles divide into smaller tubes called terminal branchiales 5. Terminal bronchioles branch into smaller tubes called respiratory bronchioles 6-Respiratory bronchioles branch into alvendar ducts 1. Avesar ducts end in alveolar Bacs, made up of alveoli Alveolar Cells: Ti alveolar cells: simple squamous cells (pneumocates) wmore gas exchange occurs T2 alveolar cells. aka septal cells, secrete alveolar fluid containing Surfactant: for moniture, Reduce surface tension and prevent the collapse LeAlveolar Macrophages: mobil cells that patrol the epithelium to remove particles that have evaded defenses in upper respiratory tract, Cilary action carriers trapped particles to the pharyne to be swanowed or expectorated Bronchi The Lungs Lateral View of the Lungs Medial View of the Lungs Le Base bottom of lungs Aper tip, superior edge LP Costal Surface: outer dres against the ribs La Mediastinal surface: nearest to the mediastinal structures Diaphragmatic surface: on the diaphragm Le Candiac Wetch makes space for the heart LyFissures: Oblique & Horizontal Oblique Only in left ling=2 lobes Horizontal Fissures in right Slabes The Pleura: Parietal Pleura: Cover's body wall Intrapleural space, behueen both visceral Pleura: Covers lung Primary Function of respiratory tract: Loto remove Cox From deargganated blood and replace it with Os Ly Process: Deonygenated wood is returned to the heart via the venous system. Ly Deoxygenated blood is then carried via the pulmonary arteries to alveolar capillaries where gas exchange happens Pulmonary veins conry anggenated blood back to the left side of the heart to be distributed Pulmonary Ventilation: Lothe physical movement of air imo and out of the lungs (breathing) maintains alveoler vestilation/prevents buildup of CO₂) Lo Atmospheric Pressure (atm): essential for the creation of pressure gradients, if pressure is lower than the outside, eir moves inte the lungs Boyles Low relationship between gas pressure and volume. The pressure exerted by a gos is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies. Muscles of Palmonary Ventilation. Diaphragmi contracts (lowers) to cause inhalation. Relaxes (raises) to cause exhalation Le External Intercostals: elevates ribs to aid in inhalation Respiratory muscles: Primary (inhalation): Diaphragm Accessorg (inhalation): Stemocleidomastoid, Scalene, Pectoralis, serratus Primary (Exhalation): Accessory (exhalation): Internal Intercostal, Transverse thoracis, external oblique, Rectus abdominis, Internal oblique Tidal Volume: amount of air breathed in and out of the lungs during quiet respiratory cycle (500mL) Anatomic Dead Space: regular breathing-amount of air that doesn't make it to the alveoli (150mL) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRY): mhale on a deep breath Inspiratord Capacity: How much you could possibly inhale, vital capacity + IRV Vital Capacity: amount of air you could potentially move out in a resp. cycle if both in out were forced Expiratory Reserve Volume: Deep/forceful exhale Residual Volume air left in lungs after malation foruld fully relax left in they Alveolar Ventilation: the volume of air exchanged between the atmosphere and alveoli per minute (amount that makes alveoll Lrless than pulmonary ventilation b/c of anatomic dead space Gas Exchange: the exchange of Of and COs between air in the alveoli and the blood-simple diffusion, down a partial pressure gradient. Lroccurs across the blood-air barrier-rbit the Short distance for diffusion, gases are said soiwble, large SA for diffusion Transport of Oz and CO2: Le Hemoglobin molecule: 4 globins, 2 beta) 4 home groups Each hemoglobin can bind up to 40s molecules Right Shift: daffining between wemagtobin by mert Os ovailable to Hosues and more Os to keep up tempor Beer Acidity Left Shiftit affirsty hang onto Oz, hemoglobin release less o binds more readily with Os than adult CO₂ is transported in the blood as a bicarbonate (HCO3) Voluntary Neural Control: If CO₂ got's too high, becomes overridden-stells you too breath. Lotemporarily control resp. nate-singing, swimming. If Involuntary Neural Control: Dorsal Respiratory Group: involved in all inspiration (quiet or forced) controlling the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm Lo Venhol Respiratory Group: involved in forced inspination and contrais forced exhalation accessory muscles Neural Control-Pontine Respiratory Group: Apneustic Conter: located in Posts, provides continuous stimulation of DRG, in qulet breathing-werps & insensity of breathing. In forced breaming- Stimulated by CNX (vagus nerve) to increase lung inflakon Lo Pressmotanic Conter: major rave is to inmibit apneustic cewer and promote ethalalion Respiratory Reflexes: Lo Chemoreceptors are sensitive to PCOS, tpt, or PO₂ in blood or CSF Le Bavoreceptors coordinated Os supply with blood flow TBP-60, Carotid and aortic bororeceptors sense changes in blood pressure Hering-Breuer Reflex: Active only during forced breathing, prevents over-expansion of lunas