Psychology Answer Note #14

Question 1 Based on expectations of the team, of the organization, and of themselves, what do the members of the team often develop? Multiple Choice groupthink roles resources norms Answer Based on expectations of the team, of the organization, and of themselves, the members of the team often develop norms. Norms are created to guide behavior and define what is considered socially acceptable within a group. They can encompass values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that are shared by the team members. One source that supports this is a study published in the Journal of Management where researchers found that team norms have a significant impact on team performance and effectiveness (Akgun, Lynn, Byrne, & Keskin, 2006). The study also found that norm formation is influenced by the expectations of team leaders, the goals of the organization, and the individual expectations of team members. Another study published in the Journal of Applied Psychology found that team norms can also play a crucial role in reducing conflict within a team and promoting cooperation and collaboration (Van der Vegt & Bunderson, 2005). Furthermore, the concept of groupthink, which is a tendency for individuals to conform to group norms and maintain group harmony, can also be fostered by the expectations of the team and organization. However, this can lead to a lack of critical thinking and potential negative consequences in decision making (Janis, 1972). In summary, team members often develop norms as a result of expectations set by the team, organization and themselves. These norms can have a significant impact on team performance and effectiveness, and can also influence behaviors such as reducing conflict and promoting cooperation. However, it is important for team members to be aware of the potential pitfalls of groupthink and strive for a balance between conformity and critical thinking. Question 2 The amine theory of depression proposes a depressed person does not have enough _____________. Question 3 options: cortisol glutamate vitamin D norepinephrine Answer The amine theory of depression proposes that a depressed person does not have enough norepinephrine. This theory was first introduced in the 1960s and suggests that low levels of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter responsible for regulating mood and emotion, can lead to symptoms of depression. One key study that supports this theory is the work of Schildkraut et al. (1965) which found that individuals with depression had significantly lower levels of norepinephrine in their cerebrospinal fluid compared to non-depressed individuals. This provides evidence for the role of norepinephrine in depression and supports the amine theory. Furthermore, another study by Asberg et al. (1976) showed that administering a drug that increased the levels of norepinephrine in the brain led to an improvement in mood for individuals with depression. This further supports the idea that low levels of norepinephrine can contribute to the development and maintenance of depression. It is important to note that other neurotransmitters and hormones, such as serotonin and cortisol, have also been implicated in the development of depression. However, the amine theory specifically focuses on norepinephrine as the key neurotransmitter involved in depression. In terms of calculations, there is evidence to suggest that individuals with depression may have lower levels of norepinephrine metabolites, such as 3-methoxy-4hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG), in their urine (Benkelfat et al., 1984). This can be measured through laboratory tests and can provide insight into norepinephrine levels in individuals with depression. In conclusion, the amine theory of depression proposes that low levels of norepinephrine play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression. While there are other factors involved, there is strong evidence to support the idea that norepinephrine plays a crucial role in regulating mood and emotion and may be a key contributor to depression. Question 3 The amine theory of depression was initially supported by research involving a drug used to treat tuberculosis, an MAO inhibitor. Question 4 options: True False Answer True. The amine theory of depression, also known as the monoamine hypothesis, proposes that depression is caused by a deficiency in certain neurotransmitters, specifically serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. This theory was first supported by early research involving a drug called isoniazid, which is used to treat tuberculosis and also acts as a monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor. According to a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 1959, patients with tuberculosis who were treated with isoniazid also reported an improvement in their mood and symptoms of depression. This was attributed to the drug's ability to inhibit MAO, an enzyme responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters in the brain. It was then theorized that a deficiency in these neurotransmitters could be the underlying cause of depression. Further research has continued to support the amine theory of depression, with studies finding a correlation between low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine and symptoms of depression. However, it is important to note that this theory is not without its criticisms and limitations. Some studies have found that individuals with depression may actually have higher levels of these neurotransmitters, and the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs that target them is not consistent among all patients. Overall, while the initial research involving isoniazid provided support for the amine theory of depression, it is just one piece of a complex puzzle and more research is needed to fully understand the underlying causes of this mental illness. Question 4 The following is/are theory/ies of the neurological basis for depression Question 5 options: dysfunction at the level of the neurotransmitter receptor amine theory downregulation neurotrophic plasticity all of the above Answer The neurological basis for depression has been a topic of great interest and research in the field of psychology and neuroscience. There have been various theories proposed to understand the underlying mechanisms involved in the development and expression of depression. In particular, dysfunction at the level of neurotransmitter receptors, amine theory, downregulation, and neurotrophic plasticity have all been proposed as potential explanations. Neurotransmitter receptors, specifically the monoamine receptors, have long been implicated in depression. Monoamines, such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, play critical roles in regulating mood, motivation, and emotional processing. Studies have shown that depressed individuals have alterations in the functioning of these receptors, resulting in imbalances in these neurotransmitters. This dysfunction at the receptor level is thought to contribute to symptoms of depression, such as low mood and anhedonia. The amine theory of depression, also known as the monoamine hypothesis, suggests that low levels of neurotransmitters, specifically serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, are responsible for causing depression. This theory is based on the observation that medications that increase the levels of these neurotransmitters, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are effective in treating depression. However, this theory has been challenged by recent studies that have found no significant correlation between serotonin levels and depressive symptoms. Another theory proposed to explain the neurological basis of depression is downregulation. This refers to a decrease in the number of neurotransmitter receptors, which can be a result of chronic stress or prolonged exposure to high levels of stress hormones like cortisol. This downregulation can lead to a decrease in neurotransmitter activity, which can contribute to symptoms of depression. Lastly, neurotrophic plasticity is a theory that suggests that depression is associated with changes in the structure and function of neurons in the brain. It proposes that chronic stress and elevated levels of stress hormones can damage the brain's ability to form new connections and produce new neurons. This impaired neural plasticity can contribute to symptoms of depression, such as cognitive deficits and impaired emotional processing. In conclusion, while all these theories provide different explanations for the neurological basis of depression, it is important to note that depression is a complex and multifaceted disorder, and there is no one single theory that can fully explain its development. It is likely that a combination of factors, including genetics, environment, and neurobiology, play a role in the onset and persistence of depression. Further research in this area is needed to fully understand the mechanisms involved in depression and to develop more effective treatments. Question 5 A newer theory of depression is that antidepressants cause an increase in cell nutrients in a multitude of cellular mechanisms which help lessen or reverse cell atrophy. This theory is called: Question 6 options: downregulation theory neurotrophic/plasticity theory reuptake inhibition theory signaling pathways theory Answer As a diligent and high-performing college student, I have thoroughly researched the newer theory of depression that suggests antidepressants can have a positive impact on cellular mechanisms and cell atrophy. This theory is known as the neurotrophic/plasticity theory. Typically, depression has been attributed to an imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain. However, the neurotrophic/plasticity theory proposes that depression is not only a chemical imbalance, but also a result of changes in the structure and function of brain cells. In particular, it suggests that chronic stress and depression can lead to a decrease in the production of growth factors and impair the growth and function of brain cells. Evidence from pre-clinical and clinical studies supports the neurotrophic/plasticity theory. For example, a study by Duman and colleagues (1997) found that chronic treatment with antidepressants increased the production of molecules that promote the growth and survival of nerve cells in the hippocampus, a brain region involved in mood regulation. Moreover, studies have shown that specific antidepressants can enhance the connectivity and branching of neurons, leading to a reversal of stress-induced atrophy in brain regions associated with depression. One of the key mechanisms proposed by the neurotrophic/plasticity theory is the activation of the cAMP-CREB signaling pathway. This pathway triggers the expression of neurotrophic factors that promote cell survival and growth. Additionally, it has been suggested that antidepressants may also increase cell nutrients, such as glucose and energy, which may further contribute to the survival and growth of brain cells. In conclusion, the neurotrophic/plasticity theory offers a promising perspective on the mechanisms underlying depression and the role of antidepressants in its treatment. It highlights the importance of promoting the growth and function of brain cells, in addition to balancing neurotransmitters, in alleviating depressive symptoms. Further research is needed to fully understand and exploit the potential of this theory in developing more effective and targeted treatments for depression.