BIOL 1902 Natural History: All Lecture's

tannins Gray tree frog Swallowtail caterpillar American bittern Lecture 1 Natural history is nature ● Living,breathing, dynamic animals ● Plants are animals ● Mammals - birds are animals - reptiles & amphibians (HERPS)(snakes) -insects ● Is the interaction between plants and animal ● Real world ● Observation of living plants and animals(flura and duna) , intercation. ● Observational science Component 1: Staying alive Defences ● Appearance o Camouflage = concealment (hidden in some way) o Not all animals that have it (bigger) o Different habitats ⇒ different opportunities o o ● Grasslands ⇒ have this feature ⇒ vertical lines [animals have it too to blend in] o Wetland habitat → vertical lines→ swamp marsh o ^^ background matching (patterns that match habitat) [someway representing th habitat around you] o Works only w one condition ⇒ theyre not moving [behavipr] ▪ Have to be cryptic ▪ American bittern (dont fly when frightened ) o Forests → patches of black and dark ▪ White speckles floor ▪ On your body -^^ ▪ Ruffled grouse (example) ▪ Spruse grouse o Gray tree frog→ matches w tree (grey green brown ) Change color (when seasons chnage) o Example : hare o Seasonal color change o ● ● ● ● Colour patterns also used fro concealment Songbirds have eye lines and eye stripes for concealment Disruptive patterns –killdeer Chinstrap, necklace Disruptive patterns +crpytic behaviour = crypsis ● ● line up ofpatterns when bodies touch == coincident disruptive colouration Also group coincident disruptive colouration ⇒ all together ● Shape o o o o When shape and color matches Body shaped as part of the environment Masquerade (background mimicry)⇒ looking like something it is not Dead lead mimicry ⇒ body shape of dead leaf Stayinf alive how? Camouflage 1. Background matching 2. Disruptive patterns → breaks out the animals Imp = CRYPTIC 1. Masquerade → represent something animals dont want to eat 0. Dead leaf mimcry 1. Twig mimcry (inchworm,walking stick) 2. Thorn mimcry (tree hoppper) 3. Bird dropping mimics (giant swallowtail caterpillars) 4. Pine cone mimicry 5. Camouflaged looper (adds onto it[like halloween] to masquerade ) Add camouflage to the body 1. White mass in stem (white haies) ⇒ wooly aphids Spittlebug ⇒ stabs onto plant stem Sucks on the juices Goes back end excretes liquids ⇒ creates foam Hides from outside world && keeps them cool on hot days LECTURE 2 Insects on water == danger from both sides (air and water) Bicoloration → ● For aquatic animals ● backgrounf matching in two directions ● Protect from both sides ● Ex = whirlgiigges ,backwimmer Countershading ● Deers are examples ● To shade lower part (need 2 different colors) ● Self-shadow concealment If camoydlage fails ⇒ plan b Ex : underwing moth Startle patterns Sudden appearance of brighter color that is hidden Brighter colors appear⇒ startle predator == Not always bright color ⇒ some have eyespots Not only on insects → frogs too (gray somethin frog) Startle structures Giant swallowtail caterpillar? Touch it ==? Some “snake-tongue” structure appears Beaver → tail slap → startle potential attacker Hits water w a force ⇒ makes a sound Beaver tail slap ==? Startle sound Rough grouse ⇒ startle sound (made w wings , explosion sound) Some patters are hidden until needed Some always visible : Example: Eyed elater Eastern tiger swallow tail (eyespots make animal larger ) Startle pattern functions: ● To startle predatr ● Direct attack to non-vital body part (dsitract the bitd) ● Defelect attack to non-vital body part ● Deflection/distraction patterns 0. Some butterflies have ‘tails’ ⇒ makes it look like another head 1. Example ⇒Hairstreak, giant snowtail 2. Sorry tail ⇒ only one ‘antane left’ , even sorrier tail ⇒ both ‘ antanes’ gone 3. Illusion of a head there Example = Five lined skink → bright tail that can be broken off and replaced Eye pattern (hairstreak) Structure Brighter colors Sounds Body armour Lecture 3 Fake antenna and fake heads can serve as distraction or deflection structures Physical defense consit of Body Armour (millipede) armadillo snails turtles Shells made of calcium 2 areas ghat protect turtles - carplace & plastron (still not fuloly protected) Younger ones → seem to be more protected Snapping turtles → cant fully withdraw into shell Eastern tent caterpillar → webs (protective house around them) Soft hairs – gypsy moth caterpillar Hair can be modified into stiff spines ( \porcupine [quills → htye have to make contact cant shoot , extremely common, raises when dangerous ] modified guard hairs ) The quills greasy → found to have antibiotics (either to protect themselves) Chemical defences Poison spines Hair+poison = poison spines - monkey slugs (Io moth caterpillar ) Not camouflages → brightly colored → advertising they have a mechanism Skin is toxic– salamander Aposematic colorism → warning coloration [DONT TOUCH] Contrasting light and dark colors (black and white) → for at night Ladybugs manufacture their toxins Some animals can manufacture , some store Monarch caterpillar sequesters ⇒ Continues on when they become butterflies , adults (clreaning plant from poison and storing it in ur body ) cardiac glyoside (terpenoid[bitter taste]) poison from milkweeds Exploiting that –? Viceroy (mimic is harmless LIAR ) Another ec: bumble bee and hover fly Honeybee & hover fly Batesian mimcry Firefly → light producing organ (request a toxin) Photuris → only females . they get it by eating from male (by mting) Aggressive mimicry Skunk → releases from a nipple Sulfur alcohol Chemicals in mammals as well Yellowjacket(paper wasp) → injector (stringer) Bumblebee,hornet wasps, Black & yellow Look like each other (when they have chemical ) When a group of unrelated animals are all defended anf bear similar appearances== mullerian mimcry [all true they DO have chemical defenses] ● ● ● Animals armed w chemical weapons often bear → aposematic colouration Allows a predator to learn and avoid that predator Diff between mullerian and batesian Batesian → mimic is harmless (liar) , original/model ⇒ poisonous mullerian → mimic is poisonous (truth) , original/model ⇒ poisonous How to solve the questions: Bright coloration that theyre all sharing All poisonors or not? There are limitations → if there are more mimics than models (more good experience than bad) ● ● limitations Number of models > # mimics Models and mimics must occur at the same time American toads have the toxin → bufotalin in skin glands Behavioural defence TOO – swell up(puff up and look larger than life) Swell head w air → snakes Doesnt work → rolls over and plays dead thanatopsis /vibrate (MOSTLY not predatory just in a=\) Possums also do the same thing Lecture 4 White tailed deer form large groups for the winter Large groups called ⇒ deer yard Behavioural group defense 1. More deers to watch 2. Safety in numbers (somoene WILL escaoe) Examples 1. Deer yards 2. Flocking (bird group defense) 0. Visually confuses predators 1. For each flock member lowers the odds of being caught 0. Act like one giant organ (murmuration?) a. More eyes and more vigilance b. Warber 0. Difference lie between the food source type 1. Food to go around 2. All the diff types of warber go together ⇒ all benefit 0. ? → MORE eyes to watch for danger ● Group defesnes van be aggressive Yellowjacket wasps When one gets alerted: 1. Attack phermones summon the troops Nto alone for v long → give alarm calls Summon other birds to join the attack MOBBING - Small bird getting summoned to big bird (pre-mative defense) Adv ● Making habitat safer ● Scaring away predators Another behavioural defense: Bodygaurds Example: Carpenter ants guarding aphids Eastern bunny tail: When alarmed → run away → bright white tail Why would they have a white tail that ony show up when? Startle them Giving them a target 1. Awareness of the predator 2. Jumpy motion when running – giving predator to focus on 3. Vigilance == being alert and actively looking for danger Scan the environment 1. Auditory == ears (rabbits) 0. Large surface area – huge ears 1. Capture sound 2. External pinnae – they pivot to scan 3. Insects ears different → have it at base (theyre membranes) 0. To detect bats (most of the time) 1. Visual eyes 0. Snowshoe hare 0. Ees on the side of hair (placement important) 1. Eyes cover different field of views a. Ducks 0. 360 degrees a. Eyes on the front ⇒ help u hunt . on this side ⇒ help survive b. Animals that are nigh active ⇒ have bigger eyes 0. Eyes w alot of rods in the retina a. Flying squirrel → eyeshine 0. Reflect the eye 1. Tapedtim lucidum 2. ​Olfactory =nose a. Forked tongues → snakes have enhanced power of smell/taste 0. Scents analyzed in Jacobson’s organ 1. Have 2 chambers a. Moose → olfactory sense,, enlarged .Have one chamber ones a. Theres a posture for all thus ⇒ called flemen a. Adaptations for Beavers ⇒ can see both bottom and at the top Beavers dont have large ears → ? → in water, theyd drag Limitations to adaptations PLANTS Physical defenses ● Body armour on the outside o Tough outer bark o (trees and other woody ● hard coats o Seeds can be protected by inside o Acorns v tough to break ● Prickly structure o DESIGNED for large herbivores (thistles) o Modified leaves = spines o Prickles made by epidermus itself o Blackberries or raspberries have prickles o Haw thorne – come from modified branches o bird s sometimes impale prey on thornes o Prickly ash Thorns are modified branches Test them out? ⇒ by cows Ragweed ● plant hairs called trichomes o Some excrete o Glandular trichomes = physical + chemical defense Water smartweed ● No trichomes on leaves in water ● If water goes away ⇒ trichomes appear on leaves ● Sdefense → only there when needed! Inside leaves ● Structural Elements such as Cellulose, Hemlcellulose, and Pectin make plant tissues hard to digest ● V hard for animals to digest/east Lignin → gives stifness STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS are DIGESTIBILITY REDUCERS -silica found in horsetails Dont produce flowers Back in the day used to grow Becomes stiffness Grass also full of silica Other digestibility reducers are not structural components ● Tannins → astringent (in oak) Calcium used at deterrent (arrum plants/skunk cabbage ) → Calcium oxalate crystals Milkweed have terpenoids ● Terpenioids taste bitter ● Do nto contain nitrogen ● Most animals can not eat ● Major group of chemical ● New pines cones have resin,(Poison ivy) plants that do contain nitrogen == alkaloids ● Can be incorporated to the manufacturing process in pant ● Examples : asters,buttercups, ● Alkaloids interfere with digestion by binding to digestive enzymes; some are sugar mimics== constitutive defenses (become part of the body)[always in leaves] Toxins that appear\ produced by demand ● Hydrogen cyanide ⇒ inducible o o Components stored in leaves Black cherry , bracken Some chemicals disrupt digestion by Interfering with digestve protelns Wounded leaf == sends wound hormones (other plants can create more mechanisms) Insect growth hormone Moulting and juvenile hormone As it gets bigger ⇒ no more juvenile hormone Moulting homroes ⇒ phyto ecdysone Example : bracken fern → insect egg laid → insects die too quickly Knock out jevnile → die too quickly as it grows fasted Bracken fern contains PHYTOECDYSONS (mature too quickly and die ) Balsam Fir contains PHYTOJUVENILE HORMONE Insect eat → do not mature at ALL Reproductive hormones → mess up and animal’s reprrodutive system Phytoestregens ==? Example : red clover Phototoxins -very nasty side effects Mustards ● Have strong smell ● Advertise their St. john’s wort → skin becomes sensitive -== burn too easily Plants also use ⇒ aposematic colors too -berries that arent ripped yet → terpanoids → green in color When a plant is under attack , an alarm is sent to other plants to prepare Chemical messengers ⇒ Phytohormones Initiate biochemical responses Larva stages Lareve → MH|JH - MH - MH - butterfly Environmental stress Temp extremes 0 degree scoial ● Water freezes , water turns to ice ● Ice expands ● Some animals stay under the ice ● Ectothermes o Insects and frogs o Outer temp effects inner temp o Internal temp is controlled by external temp o Put them in cold weather → they die o How do they deal w this?? ▪ Stay active ▪ ● Endothermes o We are that o Wolves o How do they deal w this?? [solutions ] ▪ Stay active ▪ Dress for the occasion ▪ Under fur (grow more hair!) → mammals ▪ Guard hairs ⇒ grow longer and thicker [moose] ▪ Its dense → traps body heat ● Birds ▪ Grow bulkier feathers ▪ Contour feathers on the outside ▪ Feather replacement once or twice a year ▪ Down feather underneath ▪ Add Subcutaneous fat that burns for fuel ▪ Shivering is imp for thermogenesis (behavior generate wheat as muscles moves ● Mammals ▪ Add extra layers on the inside ▪ Mammals have two types of fat ▪ 1. Subcutaneous fat ⇒ insulation /warmth ▪ 2. Internal brown fat ⇒ it burns for warmth (energy) internal ● Colors can provide warmth ▪ white⇒ helps ▪ Snowy owl,ptarmigan , arctic fox ● When theres wind ⇒ white helps better (have holes → traps ● Pale colors retain body heat better than dark [snowy owl] ● Glogers rule → as u go further north tends to be paler ● 27% in the coats insulation by being white ● Shapes o NOT Long ears, long legs o NOT long tails o Body heat is lost through the bodys outer layers o As u go further noth → allens rule (shorter extremities ) o LOW surface area to volume ratio → bergmann’s rule ● ▪ ▪ ▪ Surface area: volume Wholearea of an animal : amount of matter in the body Animals in north need a low oneS ▪ ▪ Surface will lose the heat More plumb fat shape Soultions: (summary) 1. Stay active 2. Mammals grow more hair : guard hair ; underfur 3. Birds grow bulkier feathers (counter and down) 4. Animals add extra layers of fat (subcutaneous or internal brown fat) 5. Birds add subcutaneous fat 6. Birds shiver to generate heat 7. Coloration - pale bodies retain heat body (g– rule) 8. Body forms 9. Smaller extremities allens rule 10. Lower syrfacearea: volume ratio burgmanns rule 11. Havea long tail? Tail covers face Not good shape → big ears ,long tails Good shape If it doesnt have a good shape but still lives in north → ? → dormant Animals that stand on ice and dont get cold ? how ? Heat on the arteries to go down → reduces the temp of foot Countercurrent heat exchanger Bottom of feet coldest → top warmest Not always active Rete mirable or wonderful net Ivory gull- most northern gull in the world Color, body shape , ectermity size, rete mirabile Ducks - Tucking extremities (legs) under a wing can also help keep them warm How an animal breathes in winter also conserves heat and energy Counter-current vessels in snout (heat exchange ) Breathe through their mouth (RED WOLVES) Air coming out to be warminh than the air coming in Where birds sleep Choose a roost site [corniferous trees offer more warmth] Woodpeckers – stay inside cavities overnight Small owls go inside cavities Black clapped chickadees Sleeping on trees-> NOT good idea , exposed Another adaptation → huddling Ex: flying squirrel , raccoons(cavities) Makes a larger surface area Some build their own shelters Muskrat lodge - dont hibernate Beaver lodge – dont hibernate –insulation Lodge and dams not the SAME!! The one being used → has mud on the outside, channels Snow alos helps insulate the lodge In lodges → no mud on top, so allows for air exchange “:breathinh hole or chimney” BEAVERS DO NOT HIBERNATE!! Some small animals find warmth under the snow. (burrow) subnevian space (under the snow) Under the snow warmer → helps Why went it starts melting → see alot of activity Why wolves pounce -> hear the small anima;s As snow gets deeper (adds weight) Down in the ground → latent heat Bottom of snow turns into ice Small mammals spend under snow Some birds also find warmth in snow→ ruffuled grouse snow bed On cold days – animals bask in the sand (can be done when asleep too) Chickadees lower their body core temp (to 12 degree ) Entering a deep sleep → torpor Lowering their gradient to the outside temp Most animals –? Body temp below 0 → die Snakes ectothermics They sruvive b by going below the frost line and becomin DORMANT Dormancy - behavioural freeze avoidance Places snakes spend in winter HIBERNACULuM (a place) (toads) All adult turtles AND FROGS and most hatchlings escape subzero temperatures by going to the bottom of ponds and lakes Lower their heartbeat → lie there Borrow down into the soil ⇒ American toads, salamanders Most insects die – however some survive ● Go dormant and use ● Anti-freeze glycerol = cryoprotectant ● Stay in caterpillar stage Insects usually overwinter in sheltered sites ● MOST JUST LAY EGGS ● no water in the egg or antifreeze is added GLYCEROL or SORBITOL =CRYOPROTECTANTS ● Water sticks Some insects over winter as larvae ● Anti-freeze = glycerol ● When no ice forms inside bodyy = suprcooli ng Only females that mate in the fall survive the winter Angle-winged Butterflies (males and females) spend winter in the butterfly stage! ● ● ● ● lay eggs Larvae Caterpillars Adults Silk Moths overwinter as a PUPA in a COCoON Galls in golderald ● Inside of it – grub ● A fly ● Goldenrod Gall Fly grub! ● And it is FROZEN but alive! ● CRYOPROTECTANTS inside the cells ● ICE NULEATING SITES between them ● === freeze tolerance Gray Tree Frogs stay near the soil's surface and freeze! Not all herps avoid freezing temperature Wood frog, spring peeper , chorus frog ⇒ freeze tolerant Snapping Turtles are not freeze tolerant Well it depends ono They use behavioural freeze avoidance In spring – lay eggs Eggs harch in fall Hatchling Snapping Turtles head for the water where they spend winter in a dormant stage Pained turles do the same thing But some hatchling Painted Turtles stay in the ground all winterl ● Pained turtles → freeze tolerant ● BUT ONLY AS HATCHINGS Endotherms cannot freeze but some do become DORMANT Different ypes of dormant 1. Lethargy 0. Raccoons undergo periods of it 1. Porcupines 2. In a sheltered den // Chipmunks undergo longer periods of TORPOR= "HIBERNATION" ● they wake up every few days - to eat or get rid fo waste ● Low heartbeat, ● low temperature but awaken everv few days. LECTURE 7 Chipmunks → low heartbeat , low temperature , awaken every few days (not true hibernation) Ectotherms → leave eggs , some remain in larvel (cryprotectant) Many mothers overwinter as pupa in cocoon Goldenrod gall fly grub → frozen but alive ● Cryoprotectants inside the cell ● Ice neleating sites between them ● Some ice between the cells but not inside the cells ⇒ freeze tolerance Gray tree frog ● Ice forms inside body but only between cells ● Nucleating proteins directice formation between cells reptiles mostly not freeze tolerant ==? Behavioural freeze avoidance Ex: snapping turtle Racoons undergo lethargy Bats ● ● ● ● ● undergo “hibernation too” Often into caves High heart temp Low body temp Easily aroused (awoken readily ) Black bear ● Low heart rate ● High body temp ● Easily aroused ● Stay in dens covered in snow ● Beard den ● Fatten up in autumn & eat alot of materials ● Beachnuts ● Still fat in spring ● Bears dont urinate or defecate during winter dormancy ● Tappen is a rectal plug that keeps them from fouling winter den \ Groundhog \\ jumping mice ● TRUE hibernation ● Low temp and low body heat ● Below frost line \ ● Roll into a ball – for surface area Second problem w below zero temp⇒ MOBILITY 1. Physical adaptations ● really long legs [deer] - Moose have very long legs 2 m high at the shoulder - joints - large surface area of heat [snowshoe hare] - huge hind feet are bigger [snowshoe hare] - Many northern animals such as Fisher,american Marten - snow shoes - ruffed grouse → in autumn grow scales on the side of the toe - Ptarmigan → dense feathers around toes 1. Behavioral adaptation ● Small mammals travel hrough the Subnivean Space ● White-tailed Deer move to a YARD (sheltered area with less snow and more food) where they make trails in the snow ● a BROWSE LINE identifies where White-tailed Deer feed in winter ● Wolves o Travel in single file o Walk exactly in the same footprints ● Otters // minks o Short legs o Run and glide on their stomach o Toboggans Migration ● Monarch butterflies , common green derner , dragonfly , red bats ● Songbirds , sandpipers , geese & ducks ● Why? o Avoid sub-zero temp o Need Food o Great distances (thousands of km) ● Scarlet tanagers → to brazil ● Arctic turn → arctic to antarctica (ex-champion) ● Newly crowned champion ⇒ Red Knot ● Use fats (lipids) as fuel ● stop at good feeding areas to fatten up before migrating⇒ sandpipers o Double their body weight (10 days) o Hyperphagia (eat alot more) o Fly non-stop ● songbirds migrate only at night o Less predators o Cooler at night o Not as windy (calmer) o Daytime they can eat o Calmer cooler safer o NOT ALL SONGBIRDS ● Birds that fly in the morning o Blue jays , herons ▪ Blue jays have slotted wings feather for extra lift ▪ Wider at base , narrower ar tip [turkey vultutre] ● bald eagles // hawks ▪ Save energy (thermals) ▪ soar up on a THERMAL ▪ then glide down to the next THERMAL ▪ Thermal hopping ▪ Sunshine needed for the thermals lecture 8 Migrate at daytime ● Swallows o Feed on fly insects –> eat as they migrate o Fast fliers o Burn up alot of fuel when they move ● Hummingbirds Sandpipers fly both day and night ● Geese also day and night Built-in compasses in brains to ‘navigate’ Daytime navigate by the sun, landforms and visual clues Nighttime → visual clues (the moon and star constellations ) Both night and day ● Use earths magnetic field ● Rhodospin is a retinal photopigment Cryptochrome is a photopigment ● Interacts w magnetic field Canadian geese ● Fly in v’s o To conserve energy o Free lift Track migration ● Banding reveals migration secrets o Songbirds caught in fine nets called mist nets (mystified) ● Geolocators o measure longitude and latitude ● Motus o Nanotag (inexpensive) ● Radio transmittors provide information too ● Migration is COMPLEX No solution is perfect! Only half the birds that migrate return Sub-zero temp also problem for plants!! FIRST PROBLEM :: Ice inside their cells kill plants ● Solutions: o Go dormant in soil under snow o ● COLD HARDY ▪ Ice to form inside systems BUT not inside cells ▪ Excess water is withdrawn & evaporated from leaves ▪ Ex: carniforous trees ▪ Water is drawn out of cells , which inc soluble concentration ▪ Produce sugar added to cells → inc solute concentration ▪ Inc flexibilit of cell membrane(more permeable) ▪ Ice forms between cells , inside cell freezing point lowered Plants produce cold hardy though acclimation o First stage : triggered by change in photoperiod(change in ratio of light and dark) ▪ Phytochromes = light sensitive photopigments ▪ causes cells to go dormant ▪ Makes plants more responsive to lower temps ● Second stage: triggered by cold (not subzero) temps (10-0 - some trees are cold hardy to -80 Difference and similarity : ● Plants do not produce anti-freeze like animals ● Animal dont have cell wall ● SimilairITy ⇒ ice between the cells SECOND PROBLEM: retaining needles creates new problem (damage by solar radiation) ● Solution: xanthopyll pigments ● Enable chlorophyll to use suns energy to create heat (not photosynthesis) ● Skunk cabbage ● Unusual adaptation for cold ● Turns up the heat Third problem: dessication ● water dries out ● Conifers retain their leaves o so size and shape v important o Leaf area is small o Some shapes shed snow (small needles) ● Close stomata ● Thick cuticles ● Hairs on underside of leaves (break up the airflow) ● Reduce surface area by rolling up o Example : evergreen ferns ● What if they have big leaves and large surface area? o Drop their leaves Random fact: Male maple leaves ⇒ turn red Female maple leaves ⇒ turn yellow Red is not present ⇒ leaves produce anthocyanins Leaf loss helps solve a second problem associated with sub-zero temps ● Weight of snow 2 northern trees: Balsam fir have a spire shape Black spruce are splindy Too much heat also a problem → desiccation ● ● In extreme heat, plants REDUCE LEAF SURFACE AREA by CURLING the leaves Close the stomata ANIMALS ● Seek shady sites ● Go where its cooler ● Dragonflies o Heat can be shunted to body parts with a greater surface area, such as the abdomen o Position called obelisk o Shunt heat to parts w greater surface area (abdomen) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Tiger beetles o Stiling → raise up thei bodies Rete Mirabile o bypassed and more blood shunted to the extremities o Warm direclty to feet Beavers o By diverting more blood through the tail, o 90% more heat is lost than when the rete mirabile is in operation Honeybees o Social insects o Work together to air cool their hive o Use their wins to fan colony Mammals o Panting form of evaporative cooling (ex dogs) Bees o Evaporative cooling Vultures o Evaporative cooling o Excrete on their legs Morning doves o Dangerous strategy o Allow internal temp to rise up to 45 o Hypethermia (elevated) Birds don't sweat. They pant, allowing more air to pass over the respiratory Surfaces [SIMILARITY ] LECTURE NINE Challenge 3 : nutrition Plants make their own food o Need raw ingredients ● Animals cant make food o Solutions: 1. Eat plants 2. Eat other animals Eating plants (herbivory) ● Leaves , fruit of plants , seeds , nectar , sap , bark & twigs , ● dead plant material (deitritus) ⇒ detritivore ● ● Filter feeding animals ● ● ● Clams are filter feeders (filter food from moving water) Larvae black fly (females) o Filter feed with : elegant labral brushes Larger animal also filter feed o Dabbles or puddle ducks o Swans ⇒ lamellae o Northern shoveller ▪ lamellae ▪ Tongues also help filter the food from water ● Nectar requires a long proboscis Not just insects ⇒ hummingbird also interetsed in nectar o Long beak o Long tongue (extends beyond the beak) o HYOID horns (extends the tongue) (extensible tongue) ▪ Extensible tongue due to hyoid process(horns) ▪ Allow them to get more nectar ​Yellow-bellied sapsucker ● Sap specialist ● Drills into rock ● Provide sap for other animals (hummingbirds,wasps,hornet) ​Stylets ⇒ modified mouthparts ​Many true bugs suck plant juices ​Aphids are sucking bugs ● ● Animals that eat plant tissues ● Hard to get into tissues (lignin) ● tough structural COMPONENTs ● problems: o Ingestion o Digestion ● Slugs and snails break off plant tissues with a RADULA (chainsaw) ● Caterpillars have modified MANDIBLES o Some caterpillars eat leaves from the inside ⇒ leaf blotch miner o Eat leaves from inside and outside ● Mammals o Modified teeth o Beaver ⇒ incisors (top and bottom) ▪ Why are they orange? ⇒ iron in teeth ▪ Never stop growing and self-sharpen ▪ Dentine softer and at the back ● Moose ▪ have only lower incisors so they rip off plant tissues ▪ More of a rip ▪ Steps: ▪ Large CHEEK TEETH grind up the food ▪ Back teeth to grind → ▪ ▪ CHEEK TEETH grind the food and are powered by large MASSETERS ​ andibles, radula, and cheek teeth all perform the same function but arise from different M origins ⇒ analogous structures == different structures but same job ​Birds ● Have no teeth ● Spruce grouse , turkeys ● ANALOGOUS to the radula, mandibles,and cheek teeth is the .. ● Gizzard (make muscle move) ^^ all this ingestion DIGESTION ● Slugs and snails produce digestive enzymes ● Caterpillara DONT produce enzymes o Waste alot!! o Eat double their weight ● Moose o First part od stomach ⇒ full of chemicals , enzyme o Get help from bacteria (rumen) o Send it back up o Food is processed twice == rumination o Symbolic relation () ● Notall mammals have rumination o Snowsho hare , beaver ▪ Caecum (plural == caeca) ▪ Long finger like sacs full of bacteria on their intestine ▪ Beavers ⇒ eat their droppings ⇒ phraphage ● Porcupine dont eat their dropping ▪ Their digestive tract is about 26% of their total weight Fruits ● ● Not fulltime diet Waxwings are Fruit Specialists. Bohemian waxwing\ o Swallow whole thing o Very large open base of the beak (gape) o Problems: ▪ Ingest food quickly ▪ Stream of berries w seeds ⇒ alot of pooping ▪ Short intestine and small gizzard ​Fruit eaters tend to be seed dispensers ​Chipmunks ⇒ indirect seed dispensers\ ​Animals that eat fruit and pass out the seeds are.. SEED DISPERSERS ​Black bears ⇒ sometimes find berry seeds in their poop ​Seed eaters are seed predators (DESTROY THE EMBRYO INSIDE ) ​Sparrows, American goldfinches, evening grosbeak, red crossbill ​The top part is a hollow ⇒ slice ​Red crossbill ⇒ good for cones ● Crossed mandibles for ● Put hooks in ⇒ move sideways ● Pull seed w tongue ● Gizzards ● Different plants have different food quality ⇒ animals switch diets seasonally ● Balsam fir == very low sodium o Moose (in summer)==> ▪ switch to aquatic plants (high in sodium content) ▪ Sodium stored in rumen ▪ Another way moose get salt in body? Road salt(sodium chloride) Animals eat animals Predation ===> predatot ● Advantages o More return for the effort (protein already packaged) o Easier to digest ● Dis o Not easy to find/catch o Often prey is well protected o Fight back ● Steps o Locate ▪ Sharp eyesight (hawks → diurnal birds of prey) ● Capture ● Immobilize ● Deal w parts that aren't digestible Some eat from the inside while the animal is an alive ⇒ parasitoid Animals that eat dead animals ⇒ Scavengers Animals that hunt at daytime[hawks] 1. Have bigger eyes (enhanced vision )→ more sensory 2. Large eyes collect more light 3. a large number of CONES for visual acuity 1. Hawks can magnify (2-4 times) 2. Frontal placement for depth perception 3. Central fovea used for searching [for movements] & temporal fovea for persuit 4. Pits in eyes for enhances ● ● Enhanced vision Location of eyes Adaptaions for nocturnal night hunting (owls) 1. Huge eys to gather light 2. Golubular shape → before hits eye → light expands 3. Eyes contain lots of rods with glycogen (sensitive to light coming in) 4. Globular shape to gather light and magnify without loss 5. For every cone = 30 rods 6. How sharp? ⇒ not as sharp as hawk 7. Frontal placement 8. Blind behind them 1. Problem: 0. Large blind area 0. Rotate heads ⇒ 270 degrees 1. Centre Vertebrate has hole in them bigger than artery a. Frogs are visual hunters TIGER BEETLES have large COMPOUND EYES Ground Beetles are nocturnal counterparts of Tiger Beetles o Black in colour (since they hint at night) ● Damselflies are also visual hunters o Odonates ⇒ dragonflies o Odonates have large eyes o Each eye is a compound eye with many individual components (ommatidium) o 28000 ommatidia each w 6 or 7 sensory cells ● Whirligigs see above and below the water at the same time! ● ● ● ● ● Swirl around ⇒ never hit each other Spider o o ● 8 simple (not compound)eyes Spiders jump ⇒ jumping spiders ▪ Exceptiponal eyesight (ALE) Anterior mendian eyes ▪ Jumping splders move thelr retinas to change thelr feld of view Crab spiders ⇒ visual hunters ▪ Hold their front legs ▪ Found in plants (flowers) ● Blend in ● The Goldenrod Crab Spider can change its colour from yellow to white! o (not to hide) ⇒ to capture a meal!! ● Eyesight important to scan for preys Can be enhanced Smell ● ● Large pinnae Owls ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Hearing is owls most developed sense Hear with their faces Feathers have rings → facial disks (act like sound waves) 30 cm below the snow can heart Drawback o Cant block o The short, downcurved bill prevents interference with sight and hearing Dawn and dusk () Wide head == horizontal sound separation Asymmetric ear canal ⇒ vertical sound sepreation See how low or hight // left or right Further apart the ears are ⇒ more precise Silent flight Large wings carry small,light bodies ⇒ low wing loading Fringe on leading edge of wing ⇒ help silent flight Also by sound → echolocation (shrews also use it) More noctunral ⇒ more developed special tools Most nocturnal owl ⇒ boreal owl LECTURE 11 Mammals ● Sense of smell o Wolves ▪ Elongated snout ▪ Olfactory sense ▪ Vomeronasal organ ▪ Flemen (moose too ) ▪ Scent trials are easier to track at dusk ● Snakes ▪ Jacobson’s organ ● Sene of touch (sensory infromation) o Raccoons ▪ Have touch-sensitive front paws (feel for their food) Tactile ▪ ● River otter , foxes ▪ Vibrissae ● Birds o Dont have hairs → so no vibrasse o Similar feature ⇒ rictal bristles o Kind of like net → help capture prey ● ● ● ● ● Moles o have Eimer's Organs in their nose protuberances Sandpipers , o Can not see their food o HERBST CORPUSCLES in the bill's tip Ducks o Bill tip organ o Nil Woodpeckers o HERBST CORPUSCLES in the tips of their tongues Rattlesnakes o Infrared waves o The HEAT PIT lies between the eyes and the nostrils and can detect changes as small as 0.001 C HOW TO USE THIS ADAPTATIONS? 1. Active searching () 0. Wolves foxes and some spiders 1. Tiger beetles (search and capture) 2. Wait and ambush 0. Mantis let their prey come to them 2. Scan and listen 0. Owls hawks 1. Crab spider 2. The Goldenrod Crab Spider changes colour to match the flower it is waiting on White yellow and pink 1. Flight intercept traps 0. Spiders (spider web)--> intercepting flight of insect 1. Orb weaver webs 2. Sheet-web spider webs a. Funnel weavers → build webs on ground a. Visible at day break → strands absorb the moisture b. Webs are HYGROSCOPIC Spider webs facts: 1. Spider silk has a tensile strength half that of steel 2. Webs can contain 6 or more types of silk (in one web) 3. Spiders recycle silk from broken webs To build a complex orb-web takes: 20 minutes STABILUMENTUM Adult ant-lion ● In Ottawa ● baby!!--> look weird?? ● Pitfall trap ● Make traps in the ground Worms (earthworms) ● Mole tunnels = traps Some animals attract their prey With lures ● Aggressive mimicry → Using parts of the body to attract prey o Alligator snapping turtle ▪ A built-in fishing lure that looks like a worm ▪ Modified tongue that looks like a worm ● Angler fish ▪ Light ● ● Once prey is located,it must be captured Strong toes equipped with talons [claws] ● Bird hawks Special feet for catching fish o Osprey ▪ Hover when they see fish ▪ Carry fish head first ▪ Scales on the underside of toes = sharp projections for holding slippery fish Outer toe is reversible [owsls too!!] ▪ Why? ▪ ▪ Better grip if they miss alittle ​Bills ● ● Loons (hooded) meganser ● Tooth like projections Lecture 12 Great blue heron ● Stand and wait ● Adult less weary than humans are? Snowy egret ● Yellow feet Mammals Otter, raccoons ● Canine teeth == modified incisors ● CANINES are powered by the TEIMIPORALIS Beetles ● Modified mandibles Frogs ● Use tongues ● Tongue flick ● Eyes help them swallow their prey Woodpeckers ● capture prey with their tongue ● Myst be extensible ● Sticky saliva ● Hyoid horns → extend tongue Crab spider, matis ● Legs ● Raptorial legs Teeth , bills, feet , tongues ⇒ all used to capture Killing the prey: Different groups of canines: ● Some animals kill or swallow prey alive ● Spider uses toxins Canines used differently ● o ● ● ● Foxes // dogs ▪ Shake and break ▪ Mice ⇒ small things Wolves ▪ Slash and shock ▪ Moose (larger) Weasels ▪ Bite into braincase cranium Cats ▪ Bite into neck vertebra Some use(birds)⇒ 1. Raptorial Bills 2. Meathook tip 3. Shrikes ⇒ kill with their bill Some hawks don't kill w bills ⇒ talons → stands on prey → move their toes and squeeze → till the hit vital organ Snakes ● Swallow their prey when its alive ● If bigger than head ⇒ need specialized mouth ● Unhining jaws at back ● Larger opening ● SOME could kill first o Gray rat snakes & milk snakes ▪ Constrictors ▪ Suffocate prey ​Kill with poison == toxins ● Venom ⇒ injected toxins ● Inject digestive enzymes ● Some begging digestive process before even ● Massasauga rattlesnake Crab spiders and assassin bugs ⇒ inject toxins + enzymes Liquid comes out? ● Larger opening ● SOME could kill first o Gray rat snakes & milk snakes ▪ Constrictors ▪ Suffocate prey ​Kill with poison == toxins ● Venom ⇒ injected toxins ● Inject digestive enzymes ● Some begging digestive process before even ● Massasauga rattlesnake Crab spiders and assassin bugs ⇒ inject toxins + enzymes Liquid comes out? ● Skin prey first ● Fishers skin porcupines ● ● ● a. Wolves also selectively feed but small bones are eaten Pass indigestible pieces through their body(feces full of hair and bone) ⇒ wolf scats Owls swallow → 12 hours larer → get rid of it o Cough it out o Pellet (safe to handle) o Non-reflective? o Not like wolves. Drawbacks to being a predatory animal: 1. Prey can fight back 2. Pollution → pestideces (poison) 3. Ingestion of toxins ⇒ bioaccumulation (botulism) 4. Peregrine Falcons were driven to near extinction by DDT 0. Changed egg shell thickness 0. So thinn ⇒ crushed them a. Changed behavior when nesting ​DDT bioaccumulation in Peregrines resulted in thinner egg shells, behavioural changes No young produced 1. Plastics 2. Human prejudice ⇒ humans killed them (competiton for food or fear r reasons) 3. Main problem IS starvation Predators are a major force in Natural Selection and Evolution Natural selection ⇒ weakest one dies LECTURE 13 ● ● ● Other animals eat their prey from inside them o The HOST can be either killed or left alive in the process Parasitoids kill their hosts parasitoids only in the larval stage 1. Braconid wasps 2. Tachinid flies 3. Flesh flies Thread waisted wasps,, spider wasps ● Wander on the ground ● Paralyze prey ● Bury it in the ground with eggs ● Also parasitoids in the larval stage? Digger wasps(cerceris) ● Dig a hole ● Bring paralyzed prey in ● Big mandibles 1. Some Parasitoids find Hosts through VISUAL SEARCHING 2. When the right HOST is found, eggs are laid through an OVIPOSITOR Ichneumon wasps ● A huge group of parasitoids ● MEGARHYSSA ICHNEUMON ovlpositors are impressive! ● Can serve as “drills ” o Locate grubs of pigeon horntails ● Find a spot ⇒ put drill ⇒ swelling like a balloon ⇒ inside other parts of drill ⇒ form a tube o shove drill down ⇒ egg gets released and shoved down ● When the egg hatches, the paralyzed Horntail larvae is eaten alive All of them are only in the larval stage ^^ Specialized ones ● Pelecinid wasps lay eggs on June Beetle grubs in the ground Turtle eggs? Parasite ● Do not kill the hosts ● Some on the outside ⇒ ectoparasite o Leeches ectoparasite in all stages o Ticks (moose ticks) ▪ Huge number ⇒ ▪ Engorged female moose ticks ▪ Not diseases ⇒ winter problem ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Black-legged deer tick ⇒ might transmit a bacteria Some mites (arrenurus)==> dragon flies Many migratory birds harbour ectoparasites ▪ Flat fly Mites and ticks ⇒ ectoparasites Ectoparasites ⇒ stay on prey Biting insects ⇒ NOT ectoparasites ● But leeches, ticks, etc.are! ● Called ⇒ obligate parasite Clams ectoparasite? o YES , but not on this stage o ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Glochidum How do they find a host? o Have a “mineral ” ⇒ fish comes ⇒ shade Tick find hosts: o Questing Ectoparasite adaptations: o Hallers organs ⇒ detects humidity, temp and co2 o Mouthparts to cut into host o Barbs on hypostome o Mouthparts for holding and penetrating o Anticoagulants to keep blood flowing o Flattened body shape ⇒ to climb through feathers o Claws to grip Some on the water 1. Lamprey problems: 1. Host dies ⇒ you die 2. Host removes them 3. Host grooms snd breen 0. Herons have pectinate toe 1. Beavers ⇒ toes 2. ● ● ● ● ● Some on the inside ⇒ endoparasites o They don't kill hosts ▪ Stay inside sand grows inside ▪ Can transfer and reproduce ● Examples CTEREBRA (a Robust Bot Fly) is an endoparasitic onlý in the larval 1. stage ● Deers ⇒ parasitic BRAINWORM (definitive host) o Without hurting it and lives inside o The larvae leave the deer in its droppings ● A slug or snail becomes the INTERMEDIATE HOST when it eats the droppings o Parasite mmakes antenna swell & change colors o Change adaptations ● Moose get “blind staggers” ● Why does the brainworm only kill moose? o Deer has a natural evolutionary history and get along together ● Robins o Definitive hosts o For parasitic fluke Mosy are ⇒ small in size How they effect behavior? o Turn off sex drive ⇒ cant reproducd o Parasitic castration problems: o Intermediate host may not be found o Wrogn host might be entered o Hosts can die Intermediate vs definitive ● The one that lets the prey reproduce ⇒ definitive ● Definitive ⇒ intermediate Lecture 14 ● Some animals eat animals that are already dead ===> scavenging o The animals that scavenege called ⇒ scavengers o Eagles are also part-time (facultative) scavengers, especially in winter o Gulls scavenge extensively but will eat live fish (not full - time either) o Common ravens ⇒ not exclusively ● Also eat live animals ● Seasonal scavengers ⇒ primarily in winter ● Do not scavenge all year adound ● Full time scavengers (obligate scavengers) 1. Turkey vultures ● Adaptations for obligate scavengers o Vultures ▪ have featherless heads ● For sticking into unpleasant places Huge raptorial Bills Detected primarly by smell o Refined sense of smell o Enlarged nasal chamber o Large olfactory bulb in brain o No membranes for during flight: o Gliding and soaring ● ● ● No flapping Dihedral (V") wing position ● Fly low and slow ● Communal roosting o Spending the night together o MULTIPLE BIRDS TOGETHER o For feeding purposes mostly o Information transfer ▪ Indirect ● Other examples of scavengers: blow flies ● Most are obligate scavengers : as larvae online ● Carrion beetle larvae o Move the corpse so they can burrow it o Give furmones ? o Lay under it ⇒ move w legs o Skin it o (so others can’t get it) o Burying beetles Various ways that animal get food ^^ When food is hard to come by: ● Predictable food shortages ● Fluctuates examples unpredictable food supplies: o Seeds and nuts o Berries and other fruits o Small mammals When suddenly yhrtes food ⇒ irruption Nomadic and irruptive Solutions ● Move to food rich regions when necessary ● Not always south ● Bohemian waxwings o Move to areas with large fruit groups ● ● In winter cant find: ● Insects Solutions: 1. Dormancy/ hibernation 2. Migrate 0. Solves the predictable supply probelm 2. Storage of food (larder) 0. Northern shrike 0. Impale food on the thorn a. Owls ​The ones that eat seeds a. Speed specialist ⇒ red crossbill a. Nomadic and irruptive 1. Scatter holding 0. Grey squirrels create hundred solitary caches 1. Canada jays do not migrate. They store. Great grey owls ⇒ irruptive Canada jays do not migrate Adaptations for storing food. S ed salivary glands Sticky saliva Nesting early Amazing memory o a large Hippocampus provides excellent SPATIAL MEMORY o Chickadee Hippocampus grows largrer before winter/ ● Create number of stashes called middens o Dig in winter and get it o Grey squirrel ● Expandable cheek pouches o Chipmunks ● Central cache o Beavers ▪ Put all food in one place ▪ Food pile ▪ Drag tails ⇒ carry branches ▪ Easier for branch to be above the water than under it. ▪ Top pile ⇒ already eaten or not edible ​Good food ? ⇒ will dive &leave it underwater ​Eat ⇒ poplar ● ● ● ● LECTURE 15 PLANTS get their nutrition: Difference → plants make their own food photosynthesis Same → have nutritional needs Most plants are ⇒ autrophic (can feed themselves) Basic ingredients: ● Sunlight ● CO2 () ● Water ● Nutrients o Nitrgoen o Phosphorus o Calcium Dominant group ⇒ heath family ● Survive with little help from friends ● Have fungal partners ● Symbolic relation ● Mycorrhizal associations o Mycorrhizae inside roots called ⇒ endo mycorrhizae ▪ Orchids ● Also, allow trees to grow in bogs ▪ Black spruce ​Spruces have mycorrhizal associations on the outside of their roots (fungus associated with roots)⇒ ecto ● Increases uptake of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus ) ● Prevent uptake of toxic compounds ​Alders have a different solution for nitrogen ● Root nodules ▪ Find bacteria inside it ▪ Inside are bacterias that FIX NITROGEN ​Some plants eat small animals ● Sundews are carnivorous Sundew leaves are adhesive traps (sticky traps ⇒ glue) Butterwort ● Pitcher plants are also carnivorous o Downward pointing hairs ▪ Insect Fall into water ⇒ drown ▪ Pitfall traps ​Bladderworts also carnivorous ● Underwater leaves are suction trap ▪ Has little vacuums inside ^^ means of getting nutrients in a low-nutrient environment ● ● Utricles ● Traps Another nutritional problem: sunlight ● A lack of sunlight ⇒ shade ● Fixing : o Some shade plants havě leaves with a LARGE SURFACE AREA ▪ Round-leaved orchids have large leaves ● Parallel to the ground ● Thin leaves o Less energy spent in building support tissues o Light reaches photosynthetic cells more quickly o Suppress competition (cant grow beneath you) Hobblebush ● Chlorophyll b> Chlorophyll a ● Have lots of leaves o Clonal, colonial growth o bunchberry ● Positive Phototropism (towards the light) o Beating the shade by growing away from it ● Climb atop the competition o wild cucumber o Tendrils are thigmotropic (touch) ● Trilliums have another solution to the shade problem o Bloom early before trees open o Problems ⇒ ▪ Snows ▪ Pollinators not there ⇒ cant produce seeds ▪ Many spring ephemerals grow in deciduous forests When its v dark ⇒ how? ● Many shade-dwelling orchids photosynthesize ● Steal carbon from other plants through mycorrhizae ● Mixotrophs ● Others lose the need for sunlight o Coralroots o Mycorrhizae o Coralroots attain nutrients from mycorrhizae associated with other plants o Mycoheterotrophs Wildflower that doesnt need sunlight ⇒ indian pipe (dont have green chlorophyll) ⇒ mycorrhizal associations ● Carbon products come from living plants== Mycoheterotroph Lives like a parasite ⇒ holoparasite Three main groups : 1. Autotrohps ⇒ make all their own food 2. Mixotophs ⇒ steal some 3. Mycoheterotroph ⇒ steal all Canceroot ● No leaves and no mychorrhizae ● Tracks chemicals (strigolactones) released by host plant to attract mycorrhizae ● Holoparasite ● One local plant is parasitic on branches o Witch’s broom o Dwart mistletoe is a HOLOPARASITE 1. Capture insects 2. Nodules in bacteria 3. Get it from other plants 4. Mycorrzihea TOO MUCH SUNLIGHT (also bad) ● Solution? ⇒ small surface area ● Buttercup o Tiny leaves o Growing on a 45 degree angle ● Dissected leaves o Just reduces surface area (this is why) ^^ all this nutrition REPRODUCTION ● Sexual reproduction ● Asexual ● Difference? ⇒ asexual ⇒ carbon copy ⇒ not diversity Internal vs external Fish,frogs and toads like bass use: EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION Amplexus Problem w external fertilization ● No guarantee of sperm meeting eggs ● Most animals use INTERNAL FERTILIZATION to better guarantee their efforts Freshwater sponge ● Some sperm donors never meet even when internal fertilization ocurs ● ● ● Release sperm into water Can release and receive sperms Sponges are HERMARHRODITES (Have both gender) ● ● Clams also send their sperm into the water! They are also hermaphroditic and never meet Advantage of hermaphroditic ● Improve the odds of reproducing by double. Snow Fleas = ● little animals called Springtails are not hermaphrodites (spring tales ⇒ cause they jump) ● They use internal fertilization yet many species never meet their mates ● Many male Springtails leave SPERMATOPHORES on the ground for the female to pick up ● Internal fertilization without 2 sexes meeting Slugs and snails ● are hermaphroditic ● They meet their mates and use personal delivery for sperm ● Sperm meets eggs inside their body ⇒ internal fertilization ● “Love darts” that they pierce each other with ● Gastropods use an intromittent organ to get sperm to eggS ● ● Clams, Freshwater Sponges, Slugs, Snails, and Earthworms are HERMAPHRODITES Slow-moving animals double their chances by reproducing by being both sexes. LECTURE 16 ● ● ● ● ● Gastropods use an intromittent organ to get sperm to eggs o Clams, Freshwater Sponges, Slugs, Snails, and Earthworms are HERMAPHRODITES o Sedentary or slow moving animals double their chances of reproducing by being both sexes! SPIDERS o Mad spiders use special mouthparts Used PALPS or PEDIPALPS o Intromittent organ Snake o Male snakes have two intromittent organs called HEMIPENES o Can only use one Moose o Penis delivers sperm closer to eggs Mammals o Spikes on penis ⇒ for stimulation NOT ALWYAS ON DISPLAY o When not needed ⇒ hidden ⇒ why? ▪ Catches in bush ▪ Drag in water ▪ Drag in air ​Most birds don't have penises ● they press their cloacas together ● Cloacal kiss ​ ● Some animals have a second type of support: ● Penis bone - baculum (not all mammals have this) Two fertilizations ⇒ inside and outside ● Barnacles are HERMAPHRODTES o Barnacles have a "wandering" penis o 40x body length How do animals meet their mate? 1. Meet by chance 2. Advertising 0. Auditory advertisement 1. Non-vocal advertisement 0. woODPECKERS use their bills to .. DRUM 1. Ruffled grouse with feathers moving (done by males to attract females ) 2. Wilson’s snipe make non-vocal sounds with their tails (snipes WINNOW) a. Crickets and Grasshoppers make courtship sounds by rubbing wings ànd/or legs together (called STIDULATION) 0. Tree crickets use leaves as amplifiers 1. Banf-winged grasshopper ⇒ crepitate (use of a sound) a. Cicadas produce sounds 0. Tymbals 1. Their EXPANDIBLE THROAT SAC acts as a RESONATING CHAMBER a. Toads have one vocal sac b. Leopard frogs have two ● AMPLEXUS stimulates Birds have a unique way of making sounds ● Syrinx allow birds to sing 2 songs at one time ● Sing has two main functions: o Declaration of territory o Serve to attract a mate ● Two different songs: o Territory announcement o Mate attraction ● FEMALE CHOICE is a major part of SEXUAL SELECTION (only reproductive systems )and a driving force in the evolution ● Some mammals use vocalizations to attract mates o During the rut, cow moose call to attract bulls o Bull low-frequency sounds o Antlers help hear better o Male bulls also vocalize and thrash with their antlers (why they have plants on their antlers) Advertising with sound disadvantages: 1. Predators and parasitoids can hear you 2. Cheater called satellite males can exploit your efforts Advertising with sound advantages: 1. Sound carries along way Advertisements can be visual: 1. (males can be v colourful and pretty more than females ) 2. FEMALE CHOICE is a powerful component of SEXUAL SELECTION In phalarope,⇒ females are more brightly coloured ● Females have more testosterone ● Sexual dimorphism reversed () When females have many male courts: ⇒ POLYANDROUS EXAMPLE: phalarope FEMALE mallards ⇒ - choose mallard with brightest greenest head - yellow bills Female House Finches choose brightly coloured males Why? ⇒ Brightly colored males are better at finding food Some birds have ornaments ● Badges of status or maturity ● Females choose males with two or more groves (four years old) ● A specific characteristic can give a female information on a male's foraging ability ● Older ⇒ survivor ⇒ good at feeding babies Antlers have ornaments ● ONLY For mating purposes. ● Males have the antlers ● Antlers change the size and shape with age o Tines (older ⇒ becomes shorter ) [the spikes] o Flat part ===> palm ● Antlers are really heavy ● Antlers are shed every winter and grow back the next year ● Moose antler bone is the fastest growing bone in the world ● ● ● ● ● ANTLERS ARE virtual INDICATORS OF AGE == maturity Deformed antlers not good for impressing females ANTLER DISPLAYS can defuse aggression They learn by sparring (how do they know whos stronger) o Challhe each other o Challenge accepted o o o o “Playful” sparring after rut is over Like song, antlers are a product of SEXUAL SELECTION Bull moose are v aggressive during the rut When two are together ⇒ can interlock ⇒ kills them Lecture 17 ● ● ● Antlers are ornaments Products of sexual selection Female choice Dobonsfly ● “Tusks” are ornaments ● VISUAL ADVERTISING can include elaborate RITUALIZED DISPLAY ● Courtship (male trying to impress the female) ● ● Many ducks use the head display (mallard) Male ruffled grouse use neck ruff and tail displays (ruff display ) Aerial displays ● Midges o Thousands as swarms ● Damselfly ● Ebony jewelwing o Impressed ⇒ clap the wings o ● Male fireflies use ⇒ aerial light displayed Swans ● Choreographed ⇒ synchronized displays ● Sandhill Cranes perform RITUALIZED DANCES - wildhead turkey ⇒ turkeys strut and show off their tail - communal display ground ⇒ lek Male sharp-tailed grouse ⇒ dance at communal display grounds Attack pheromones Chemical advertisements = olfactory advertisements (sex pheromones) Rut pits ⇒ they toll in a pit picking up pheromones ⇒ wallow pits Female snakes ● Leave pheromone trails ● No courtship ⇒ more dominant gets access ● ● ● Pheromones are commonly used by insects Usually, females produce them Male use their antennae to track down females ● ● Many female moths advertise with pheromones Females release pheromones in PLUMES o Four million sensory pores per antenna o How far for males to find ⇒ a couple of km away Silkmoth ⇒ best antenna ● Pheromones can have a second role: ● Male Hares ● Male hares leap over the females & pee on them ● Stimultation Porcupines also pee on potential partners Courtship display : Another way: gift-giving ● Cedar waxwings ● Food ● Terns o Male brings female small fish ▪ Why? Can provide for offspring ​Spiders, scorpionflies, dance flies ● Males only ● Why? Predatory ⇒ to avoid being eaten ▪ He can feel safe preoccupied female ​Male marsh wrens ● Dummy nests ● Why? ▪ Strong enough to take care ▪ May reflect a strong supply of food ​Male Bass and Bluegill Sunfish offer NESTS too ● Three forms of males ▪ Two Forms of satellite males How do males guarantee paternity? ● Contact guarding o Claspers ===> male hold them The wheel Even after the sperm → stays for when eggs are laid Walking sticks: o Long conpulations o Use bondage o Stay for a day or two ⇒ handcuffs Copulatory plugs o Many beetles use headless sperm o Feathering beetles ⇒ giant sperm o Mosquitoes ⇒ ejaculate hardens ⇒ making a cement plug o Some add anti-aphrodisiacs to the plug ▪ Why? ▪ Turn off other males ● Male garter snakes ● Honeybee ● Body explodes during sex o o ● ● ● Plants get sexy too ● Difference: o Plants cant move around ● Similarity: o Produce sperms and eggs o Hermaphroditic Plant sex 101: ● Floral sex organs o Stamens (males ) ⇒ produce sperm o Anthers ⇒ in stamens o Female ⇒ pistil o Stigma -==> receives sperm o Style ⇒ long neck of pistil o Ovaries ⇒ produce eggs Do plants have a penis or intromittent organ? ⇒ yes but this structure = pollen grains Pollen grains are the floral equivalent of intromittent organ ● Two sperms and a tube nucleus ● Double fertilization = unique to plants LECTURE 18 ● ● Pollen grains → floral equivalent to an intromittent organ o Causes Two sperms and a tube nucleus How do plants get the sperm in pollen grains to the eggs? o o ▪ Grass pollen ▪ Sedges ▪ Ragweed ▪ Coniferous tree ▪ NOT goldenrod ▪ FEATURES: ▪ Small ▪ Lightweight ● Wind pollination is called ⇒ anemophily ● Benefits ▪ Long distances ● Disadvantages ▪ Random ⇒ doesn't know where it'll land ▪ Delivery not guaranteed ▪ Solution: produce lots of pollen ● Hydrophily (by water) ● Very rare ● Couriers ● More direct way: using animals Animals used: birds, wasps, butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, bees(one of the most imp) ● Pollinations =” surrogate lovers” ● Insects are the most important group of pollinators Called: entomophily Why do pollinators help flowers have sex ⇒ they are bribed The bribes: ● Food ▪ POLLEN attracts some insects, such as Hover Flies ▪ Some flowers offer only pollen as food ▪ Pollinated by bees ▪ Poricidial pore, anther tube/cone ⇒ this requires bees ▪ Called ⇒ buzz pollinated ▪ Second ⇒ nectar (sugar and water) ▪ Nectar helid in nectaries ▪ Buttercup NECTARIES are small sleeves at the base of each petal ▪ Columbine has special nectar leaves with LONG SPURS (requires a long tongue ) (long tongue bees) ● ● ● ● ▪ ▪ ● Cardinal-flowers have long spurs ▪ Bees ignore them , hummingbird How do they attract? ● Flowers advertise ▪ Different combinations of colour and form attract different pollinators ▪ SHAPE and COLOUR are LONG RANGE VISUAL ATTRACTANTS ▪ Bumblebee ⇒ blue flowers ▪ Most see green as grey ▪ See yellow ⇒ as insect red ▪ Red seeb by hummingbirds! ● Use scents ▪ Close-range attractant ▪ Evening-firmrose ⇒ releases scents at dusk when their flowers open (at night) ▪ Not all flowers smell good ▪ Wild ginger Smells like rotting fungus ▪ Pollinated by fungus gnats ▪ ▪ ▪ Brood site deception Red trillium smell like rotting flesh Pollinated by flies drawn to carrion Flowers also use CLOSE RANGE guidance aids ● Spots ● Bulls eye ● Birds eye primula ● NECTAR GUIDES ⇒ landing targets (tell insects where it is) ● Pollen goes from air to nostril Flowers have nectar guides we can't see ⇒ ultraviolet (insects can see it) \ Marsh marigold (yellow to our eyes) == Inbreeding vs outbreeding ● Outbreeding is better (cross-pollination) ● Greater genetic diversity ● How do plants avoid self pollenation? ● Chemical safeguard o Self-sterlitiy = self- incompatibility o Tubes dont grow ● Spatial separation o Of the sexes o On the same plant (cross-pollunation) (mono) ▪ Male flowers of conifers are usually near the bottom of the tree and the females are near the ton ▪ Why are flowers on the top? ▪ Why is why cones are at the top ● Spatial Separation with each sex on a separate plant (Dioecious) ● White champion ⇒ either only male or female flowers on one plant ● ● In the same flower ● ● Temporal separation o Different times for each gender o Jewelweed ▪ Male parts fall off (male → female) ▪ Temporal sex change ⇒ dichogamy ● Spiral flower ▪ Plants with spiral floral arrangements display DICHOGAMY "with a twist" ▪ Lower flowers open first and are functionally male with pollen blocking the way inside the flower ▪ After the pollen is removed, flowers become functionally female ▪ Male-female ▪ Lower flowers are female first,, upper flowers are male ▪ Older and lower flowers are female ▪ Young and higher flowers male ▪ The direction of pollen flow prevents self-pollination! Mammals → ● Red squirrel o Use teeth o Red Squirrels bite off the cone scales with their incisors Plants have chemicals defences to overcome ● Some herbivores sequester the toxins ● Some sequestered but avoid most of the chemicals ⇒ ● vein drain (cutting the veins that carry toxins) ● Some herbivores use enzymes to neutralize the toxins ⇒ MFO’S (MIXED FUNCTION OXIDES ) ● SPECIALISTS ● Monarch caterpiallra only milkweeds Generalists Wide range ● Beavers eat everything (plants) o Use smell to select food ● LECTURE 19 Adv⇒ direction of flow prevents self-pollination\ Purple loosestrife () ● Has 3 forms of flowers ● Two sets of stamens o One pistol in each flower o Pistill vary in length ● Short style form ● Medium style form ● Long style form ● Tristily ⇒ when it has 3 style lengths ● (in general ⇒ heterostyly🡺 a way to avoid self pollination) Pickelweed ● Three forms too Pink Lady S-slippers deceive pollinators with false promises ● Pouch petal has slit opening ● Staminoide pollen ● Both are partially blocked by the staminode and sticky pollen masses ● Bees cant get out , crawls underneath that have ● Pseudopollen 🡺 fake pollen (attract animals by nothing) Pseuonectaries 🡺 fake nectar Queens Anne’s Lace 🡺 lure or decoy?? Special way to avoid self-pollination 🡺 special separation of the sexes Males are low ,, females are at top Cross pollination occurs - - Common milkweed o Clamping saddlebags of pollen o If insect cant pull out leg,, they sit and die o Insects climb down (stigma active ) ,, trap insect overnight Functionality: o Open first as female (stigma below) o A sweet liquid attracts flies and beetles o The next day it opens as a male and as insects crawl to freedom they pick up pollen from the now-active stamens o Cant become females again after being males Grass pink - Slam dunk trick Compound Fake stamens and pseudopollen (the lure) Hinged petal 🡺 bees hold onto stames Winged ‘coffins’ with sex organs Bee lands on it 🡺 petal collapses trapping bee 🡺 Laurels - Bashing stamens Kinda explosive Bunchberry - ssive way After pollination🡺 blooms red berries “pop flower” Insect lands 🡺 pops open 🡺 hit insect w pollen Explode like land mimes Stamens are the Fastest moving floral part in the world Twayblades - Explosive sex Open as males w “canon” pollen ready to fire Male 🡺 female (dicogatmy) When canon is fired 🡺 flower functionally female Older flower is on the bottom and female. Helleborine - Releases the odours of plants under attack (wound hormones) - Attract predatory wasps Provides nectar Insect thinks plant is hurt 🡺 goes to it Bees and fly orchids offer: SEX FLOWERS EXPLOIT THE ANIMALS COMING IN Cross pollination is the general rule Penalties for booming really early 🡺 frosbites Wildflowers go to plan b: - Next to the warm ground they have flowers that SELF-POLLINATE and produce seeds Cleistogamous flowers (insurance flowers) Spring ephermals have these Dandelions - Self-pollinate These exceptions not the rule! Challenge Parental care 🡺 seed dispersal Outer coverings - Some use hard structures such as scaly cones Some have ARMOUR in the form of HARD SEED COATS such as those on ACORNS Protected chemically - Terpenoid 🡺 unripe berries are protected with this (bitter taste) Aposematic colouration Milkweed seeds - Protected by pods full of cardiac glycosides Once mature, pods open and seeds are off How are the seeds sent off?? - Plants in open habitats (old fields) o Wind o Anemochory (chory 🡺 involves seeds, philly 🡺 pollination) o Adaptations o o - ▪ Small Lightweight ▪ Silk parachutes (dandelion) Drawback: ▪ Random, lands in wrong spots ▪ Missing the target habitat Solutions: ▪ Produce More seeds ▪ 70k to 100k seeds Some seeds harness the power of animals o Adaptations: ▪ Hitchhike: ● ● ▪ hooks and barbs catch on hairs/feathers (stick-tight) burdock queens annes lace : ● ● umbel closes on cloudy days , open on sunny days why? 🡺 curls up when its cloudy (theres water moisture) lecture 20 - dispersal via animals: zoochory or the outside = epizoochory plants bribe animals by sweet taste seeds travel INSIDE ==? baloochary (exploited as seed dispensers) waxwings also poop out seed 🡺 exploited as (seed disperser) seed predators seed dispersal o Takes place in different habitats o If wind not available 🡺 spring ephermals ▪ Use ants ▪ Elaiosomes 🡺 special package of protein for ants ▪ Violet 🡺 also have Elaiosomes ● First 🡺 dispersed from plant ● ● ● ▪ o o o Shrinks & squeezes out seed one by one 🡺 ballistic ejection (this is from plants) Lands away from plant Ants take over!! Larger animals disperse seeds in forest too (squirres) Different seed dispersal Miterowort ▪ Dons’t use animal, or wind ▪ Use raindrops ▪ Seeds in splash cups Foamflower ▪ Also use raindrops, but not in same way ▪ Has springboards ▪ o o o o o o Is wind ever an option for speed dispersal in a forest? ▪ Yes ▪ In autumn leaves fall off trees, and wind is available ▪ Maple samaras ae adaptations 🡺 helps them mvoe ▪ Some tree seeds have sails ▪ YELLOW birch Tiny windblown seeds that land on stumps or logs 🡺 perched bitch Some plants at ground level use the wind too 🡺 Indian pipe ▪ It goes upward, cracks open making tiny seeds available to wind ▪ Bloom late in summer Every habitat offers speed dispersal disadvantages Many shoreline or aquatic plants have flotation devices on their seeds ▪ Dispersal by water ==? Hydrochory Orange jewelweed 🡺 grows in wet places ▪ When seeds are mature 🡺 pod straps are under high tension ▪ Explode open (about 3 m) o ▪ Straps acting as catapults ▪ Seeds are thrown several metres form the plant ▪ ▪ Type of dispersal 🡺 ballistic ejection “touch me not” Ad Advantages of seed dispersal 1. Avoids crowding and competition 2. Prevents spreading od disease or parasites 3. Prevents in-breeding 4. Saves some of the offspring from being eaten Seeds do not produce each year in same number Many plants vary seed production based on environmental conditions: - Boom or bust strategy Abort seeds if conditions become poor The animal equivalent of seed dispersal is parental care Getting progeny off to a good start in life American toad 🡺 leave babies after mating Common green darner => Females choose the right habitat Temporary or EPHEMERAL P are egg-laying habitat for 🡺 freeze tolerant frogs // gray tree frog Rotting logs can be important egg laying sites (theres humidity in it 🡺 makes it a good habitat) Choosing right habitat Parental care in turtles - only involves laying their eggs in the ground The soil temperature during egg incubation determines the sex of hatchling turtles! Walking stick eggs - End up underground but not placed by female Disperse into the ground Carried by the ant for edible capitulum Northern Water and Garter Snakes - hold eggs internally until they hatch Ovoviviparity Wait till eggs hatch 🡺 leave The eggs are not nourished internally The young that are "born" are not guarded Other female animals guard their eggs Female Red-backed Salamanders - guard eggs in moist rotting logs Female Wolf Spiders - carry their eggs around in eggs white sac The EGG SAC is held by the SPINNERETTES Babies re carried on their mothers back Nursery web 🡺 carry egg sac in “jaws” - Build a nursery web and guard their sac Also guard their young! All of the aforementioned animals provide a small investment internally Do any male animals guard the eggs and young? (only male) - Male fish Bass and bluegill sunfish Male giant water bugs All that internally^ Larger animals often provide a lot of parental investment both internally and externally Moose - Eight - month gestation with placental connection Young are born PRECOCIAL Parental care: involves protecting the young && feeding them Cow moose protect their young for one year Total parental investment 🡺 20 months In 95% of mammals, females provide ALL the PARENTAL CARE Exceptions: foxes a. Exhibit biparental care 2. Wolves a. Social animals b. Pack cooperatively raises the pup c. Mid-summer pups are taken to open places called rendezvous sites d. Because they go hunting and bring back food daily e. Food is brought to the pups at rendezvous sites f. Communication 🡺 howling g. Wolves have a deeper howl? 1. LECTURE 21 Not all female mammals invest a lot internally Black bear cubs - are born highly altricial (baby) Cubs born in den in winter Females stay with the cub for 1.5 years And they do protect them! Bears mate in June and give birth in January Gestation 🡺 2 months (not six months) Delayed implantations allow bears to mate and to give birth when time is right Possum - Even more altricial Born after 13 days gestation Many carnivores display delayed implantation - Fisher - Bats - mate in summer and give birth in the next spring gestation = about 40 days bats do not exhibit delayed implantation! They store sperm Delayed fertilization Social insects - Store sperm Bumblebee and paper wasps Delayed fertilization Paper Wasps, Ants, and other social insects display GROUP CARE for the young Ants are social insects and have castes Cloacal kiss - Something to do w birds. After mating birds show two major types of parental care 1. The most common is when both parents take part in raising young (both share in parental investment) a. Biparental care b. >90% of birds do this 2. After mating, male ducks and grouse desert the females - Female only parental care after mating - For ducks o Eggs are a problem o Shells require lots of calcium and inside 🡺 yolk o Ducks grouse sandpipers 🡺 o o ▪ large eggs, 40% yolk ▪ Little effort in nest building (turd) Songbirds 🡺 ▪ small eggs, 25% yolk ▪ elaborate nests why the difference? ▪ Longer development in the egg allows chicks to hatch mobile and largely self-sufficient ▪ - Duck, grouse PRECOCIAL CHICKS leave the nest after hatching Nestling 🡺 stays in the nest after hatching Chicks 🡺 leave the nest After hatching 🡺 altricial nestlings o remain in nests barn swallows build nests out of mud o 1,700 TRIPS CARRYING MUD o Local materials ▪ Easy access ▪ Matches w background easier ▪ Outer shell often has camouflage (wood thrush) ▪ Soft material often added inside o - songbirds often >= 1,000 material gathering trips LECTURE 22 - - - Northern woodpeckers 🡪 cavity adopted (do it themselves) Exhibitors? Cavity 🡪 owl Raccoons use cavities grey frog Cavity exhibitors have a higher nest success than cavity adopters o Placement of hole o Something about defending. Great crested flycatchers o Cavity adopters o Look for snake skins o Add cast snakeskins to their cavity entrance (defend their home) White breasted nuthatches o Cavity adopters o Beetles o Adds defensive compounds around cavity’s entrance o Main chemicals come from: blister beetles ▪ - - - Cantharidin (a terpenoid) Red-breasted nuthatches o add conifer resins around perimeter outside and inside the whole o Adds gum o Nest protection Northern goshawk o Add greenery to nest o Hawks add green conifer sprigs to nests Purple martins o Cavity adopters o Why? o Martha Stewart hypothesis () The aesthetic hypothesis. Incorporating flowers or green leaves into the nest structure somehow fulfills an artistic sense of proportion of a breeding bird. (NO) (01) The crypsis hypothesis. Green plants camouflage the nest from predators. This may explain why open, cup-type nesting species use green plants. (NO) (02) (ii) The water loss hypothesis. Fresh leaves may raise the humidity around the eggs, thereby decreasing the desiccation rate of eges II . (NO) (03)(iv) The shading hypothesis. Green plants are used to cover eggs when adults are not in attendance. . (NO) (04) () The insulation hypothesis. Green plants may retard nest heat loss, thereby preventing rapid egg cooling when parents are absent. (NO) (05) the drug hypothesis 🡺 stimulates nesting immune system (06) ● ● ● ● Reason 🡺 Tannins and other plant defences discourage nest parasites Plants release chemicals that reduce the number of mites Real value 🡺 nest sanitation or chemical hygiene Nest protection hypotheses 🡺 keep out pathogens and parasites Many cavity adopters add green leaves to their nests - European starlings choose specific plants o Yarrow and queens anns lace How they make their nest protected: Birds incubate eggs - Being wrinkly and soft placid Keep eggs at 37 degree (99 F) Brood patches 🡺 feathers heating pads o Who has them? o Female grouse o Female ducks o NOT males! ▪ - Who incubates in hummingbirds? o Females only o Why? ▪ - Why? After mating, the male deserts female After mating, male deserts! Who incubates in species where paid bond remains intact? o Many warblers have female only incubation, male feeds her on nest o In other species, both sexes incubate o Killdeers 🡺 male do the night shift o Male woodpecker 🡺 night shift o Both take turns in daytime o Male northern flickers 🡺 night shift ▪ Females and males 🡺 shift in day o - How do we know that males incubate eggs? ▪ Brood patches Only the male incubates o Only three species in north America o Phalaropes ▪ Males only incubates ▪ Females look prettier. ▪ Polyandry (has a lot of mates) ▪ ▪ How can you tell which adult birds are the parents? D & A - Cuckoldry o Common in “monogamous” birds o >70% of 150 species studied had offspring sired by a male outside the pair Purple Martin - Mature males return first and take over the highest nest site (safer) -EXTRA-PAIR COPULATIONS almost double the er of the male's offspring (EPC) (add 3.6 fertilized eggs to his own mate's 4.5 eggs) Mates with another bird in the neighbourhood FEMALE scarlet tanagers - Solicit EPC’s but from males wondering in from distant territories When do eggs hatch? - Precocial 🡺 all at once o Called 🡺 synchronous hatching Altricial 🡺 all at once o Called 🡺 synchronous hatching Make sure all hatch at same time? o Incubation delayed until all eggs (full cluctch) are laid EGGS ARE USUALLY LAID SINGLY, EARLY IN THE MORNING o Why early in morning? ▪ Don’t fly with weight of egg ▪ Eggs develop overnight ▪ Laid on average one per day - Ruffled grouse – up to12 eggs per clutch Starts incubating after all laid Communication between hatching baby birds - Owls and hawk clutches hatch asynchronously o Incubation starts after first egg is laid - Asynchronous hatching (adv.) o May lessen feeding stress on parents o Reduce odds of losing entire brood o Ensure survival of some young in times of food stress o - Parental investment includes parental care (care 🡺 after born) Parental care includes: o Nest sanitation ▪ Removing eggshells ▪ Why? o o o o o o Sharp shell edges injure newly hatched chicks 2) unhatched eggs could be trapped inside hatched shells 3) hatched shells could interfere with broo the survival of the hatched nestling's nest s could reduce TII. o 4) hatched shells could reduce nest hygiene the risk of bacterial infection o 5) hatched shells could reduce nest camouflage, thereby increasing the risk of visually oriented predators. (MAIN REASON vulnerability) Removing the nestlings’ droppings ● Fecal sac ● Sometimes they devour it 🡺 has a lot of protein in them? Feeding the young ● Feeding young is a major investment of time and energy ● Young are fed up to a dozen or more times per hour! ● easier when two parents feed the young (Biparental Care in 90% of all bird species) o biparental care ● how to know which to feed? o The one that screams the most o Inside is brightly coloured Nest defence ● Can involve aggressive response ● Gulls and terns attack intruders ● Mobbing is group defence ● leading or carrying the young to safety ● Includes leading the young to safety ● Distraction displays ● Feigning injury distraction display – broken wing act o Killdeer ● Small ground-nesting birds lead predators away with a RODENT RUN ▪ Nest defence differs when it peaks in intensity ● (Weigh their risks) ▪ Precocial birds 🡺 just before eggs hatch ▪ Altricial birds 🡺 just before fledging (leaving nests) ▪ What difference? Altricial stay. LECTURE 23 LECTURE 23 - - - - The number of young with a female does not always equal the number of eggs she laid Ducks and goose broods can be extremely large due to: o Brood amalgamation o Creche (common goldeneyes, mergansers) o Creches might provide safety in numbers for both the donor's and recipient's young A female drops off one egg in neighbours’ nest o Egg dumping o Facultative Brood parasitism o Why? ▪ Insurance policy (all don’t get hurt) Black billed // yellow billed cuckoo o Cuckoos make their own nest but are known to lay an egg in another cuckoo's nest o When a Black-billed Cuckoo lays an egg in another Black-billed's nest. o Intraspecific Brood parasite o If a Black-billed Cuckoo lays an egg in a Yellow-billed Cuckoo's nest. o Interspecific Brood Parasitism o Only in Europe do this, not American Europeans do thus: o Brown headed cowbird ▪ do not display female-only parental care ▪ do not display male-only parental care ▪ do not display bi parental care ▪ never build nests ▪ never incubate eggs ▪ never feed babies ▪ brood parasites ▪ not intraspecific brood parasite ▪ not facultative ▪ obligate brood parasites ● ● ● ● never build nests never incubate eggs never feed babies >220 species parasitised Move east to eat 144 of them have raised cowbirds o Why do birds accept a cowbird’s egg and raise another bird's young? ▪ o o o o o Female cowbirds find a host next 3 ways: 1. Sit on high perch and silently watch for nest-building 2. Walk on ground and silently watch for nest-building 3. Drive bird off nest by flying into shrubs and leaves and noisily flap wings by Adaptations: o Fast egg laying (20-40 seconds) o Thick egg shells o Fast hatching (10 days) o Removal of host egg prior to laying Young cowbirds: ▪ Outcompete nest mates ▪ Can physically crush them ▪ Can knock them out of net Some do recognize and don’t accept! ▪ Host can abandon the nest ▪ Yellow warblers can build on top of parasitized nest Some recognize but respond differently: ▪ o - Many birds cannot recognize a cowbird egg Toss the eggs out ● Grasp ejectors (american robins and gray catbirds ) ▪ Puncture ejectors ● Smaller birds (cedar waxwing or Baltimore ) ● Drawbacks o Puncture own eggs o They can be retaliation! (mafia hypothesis) Never having to raise a young 🡺 still sound like one Opossums can have as many 20 (50) babies! Short gestation period After they are born, the highly altricial babies climb into the marsupium Only 13 nipples (many die before they reach the marsuplum) Advantages: o Brood (litter) reduction eagle - Optimum number of eggs for 🡺 One Two are often produced Asynchronous (one is older) Eggs hatch at different timings 🡺 larger one kills younger - o Siblicide Why? Insurance policy Muskrats - Display another type of brood reduction Female Muskrats will kill their neighbour's young o Infanticide Why? o Food shortages Tree swallow - When a female Tree Swallow loses her mate and finds a replacement New male kills her young o Infanticide Voles - female voles will abort their foetuses when they smell a strange male's urine or scent Bruce effect Brood reproduction? - Animal has certain no of eggs and its reduced purposely Example: eagles Done: an older one can kill younger one (siblicide) Tree swallows 🡺 male dies, female kills all their babies Opossums 🡺 13 nipples only ,, 54 babies 🡺 they die half Intraspecific 🡺 between same species Outrospecific 🡺 outside EPC 🡺 male takes care of an egg that isn’t Purple loosestrife 🡺 two stamens one style, Wallflower 🡺 one whole plant, different flowers Pollination w air 🡺 something with anaemia Phyle 🡺 some plants have hormones that are the exact same as animals Rumen first part of the moose Incisors 🡺 to eat MFO 🡺 mixed function oxides What herbivores have to combat against plant defences Moose get most sodium from water Major problem predators’ fact ==? Starvation when they kill the host 🡺 parasitoid parasite 🡺 don’t kill host (ecto 🡺 outside) most animals are PART time scavengers eagles 🡺 obligate predators central (looks at the side)🡺 pursuit or search temporal?? 🡺 looking ahead (straight) round structure on owl 🡺 facial disks 🡺 direct ears are asymmetrical 🡺 sound separation on vertical, way animal that uses sound to prey 🡺 bats,, shrews raccoons 🡺 most useful part , paws (touch cells) whiskers 🡺 specialized hair 🡺 vibrissae rictal bristles 🡺 whipper bird? Sensory in the tip 🡺 sandpipers Spiders 🡺 threads are visible Ant lion Holding with feet 🡺 reversible toes ⇨ Scaly feet Carnivores 🡺 with teeth Venom is put into it plus something to help with digesting Owls ==’> swallow the entire thing Ticks in moose 🡺 only in winters Burrowing animals 🡺 bury their ground Two types of shortages: - - Predictable o Happen every year Unpredictable o berry eaters for bohemian o Seeds for crossbill o Small animals for owls How to solve? o Irruption (move from one area to another) Northern shrike - How do they store food? impale them Larder Store food in all different locations 🡺 scatter hoarding (American grey jay ) Hippocampus 🡺 grows larger Partial dormancy Beaver 🡺 scatter hoard (central food storage) Plants have mycorrhizal associations Alders have root nodules 🡺 bacteria Get nurtrients from 🡺 insects - Three types of traps Sundews have adhesive traps Pitcher plants have pit-fall traps - Bladderwort has underwater leaves that are SUCTION TRAPS Other plants 🡺 positive phototropism (grow towards the light) ==