Terminology and Body Overview and Homeostasis Review

Comprehensive Exam Review Topics Terminology and Body Overview and Homeostasis  Ventral - Toward the front or belly Dorsal - Toward the back or spine  Anterior - Toward the ventral side  Posterior -Toward the dorsal side  Cephalic -Toward the head or superior end Rostral - Toward the forehead or nose Caudal - Toward the tail or inferior end  Superior - Above Inferior - Below  Medial - Toward the median plane Lateral - Away from the median plane  Proximal - Closer to the point of attachment or origin Distal - Farther from the point of attachment or origin  Ipsilateral - On the same side of the body (right or left) Contralateral - On opposite sides of the body (right and left)  Superficial - Closer to the body surface Deep - Farther from the body surface Comprehensive Exam Review Topics  Planes of the body o Transverse Plane- a plane that runs horizontally. It separates the body or structure into superior and inferior portions o Frontal Plane -A plane separates the body or structure into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions. o Sagittal Plane- plane separates a body or structure into left and right portions.  Midsagittal plane- A sagittal plane that runs perfectly down the midline of the body (or structure) and divides it into equal left and right portions  Parasagittal plane - A sagittal plane that is lateral to the midline of the body (or structure) Comprehensive Exam Review Topics   Body Regions – be able to identify the different regions of the body Comprehensive Exam Review Topics  Organ Systems and generally what each organ system is responsible for Organ system Function Organs, tissues, and structures involved Cardiovascular Transports oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to the cells and transports wastes, carbon dioxide, and other substances away from the cells; it can also help stabilize body temperature and pH Heart, blood, and blood vessels Lymphatic Defends against infection and disease and transfers lymph between tissues and the blood stream Lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels Digestive Processes foods and absorbs nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water Mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, exocrine pancreas, small intestine, and large intestine Endocrine Provides communication within the body via hormones and directs long-term change in other organ systems to maintain homeostasis Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroids, endocrine pancreas, adrenals, testes, and ovaries. Integumentary Provides protection from injury and fluid loss and provides physical defense against infection by microorganisms; involved in temperature control Skin, hair, and nails Muscular Provides movement, support, and heat production Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles Nervous Collects, transfers, and processes information and directs short-term change in other organ systems Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs—eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose Reproductive Produces gametes—sex cells—and sex hormones; ultimately produces offspring Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, ovaries, mammary glands (female), testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis (male) Respiratory Delivers air to sites where gas exchange can occur Mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm Comprehensive Exam Review Topics Organ system Function Organs, tissues, and structures involved Skeletal Supports and protects soft tissues of the body; provides movement at joints; produces blood cells; and stores minerals Bones, cartilage, joints, tendons, and ligaments Urinary Removes excess water, salts, and waste products from the blood and body and controls pH Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra Immune Defends against microbial pathogens— disease-causing agents—and other diseases Leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and spleen  Homeostasis o A range of body mechanisms. Anytime we fall out of the range (both above and below) a correction needs to be made or it will result in disease  Negative Feedback – a change is made to correct an imbalance and as soon as the change is brought back into homeostasis, the corrective change is stopped  primary and most common mechanism for homeostatic regulation  “Negative feedback loop” essentially reduces, shuts off, or counterbalances the original stimulus that caused the homeostatic imbalance.  It causes the given variable to change in the opposite direction of the initial change, and ultimately brings the system back to homeostasis.  Example: Temperature, blood glucose levels, blood volume/pH/composition  Positive Feedback – a change is made to correct an imbalance and that change is continued until (eventually) negative feedback stops the correction  The response of the effector works to further increase the change that was caused by the stimulus  May enhance, exaggerate, or amplify the original stimulus Chemistry  Atoms o Protons – positive charge Comprehensive Exam Review Topics     o Neutrons – neutral charge o Electrons – negative charge  Valence electrons – in the outer most shell (or electron cloud) and are responsible for chemical reactions Types of chemical bonds o Covalent bonding (Typically between nonmetals) o Nonmetals form covalent bonds by sharing electrons between them, as opposed to transferring electrons as is the case in ionic bonds. o When one of the atoms in a bond has a higher affinity for electrons than the other (called electronegativity)  Polar covalent bond- formed, where electrons are shared unequally. When both nonmetals in a covalent bond have similar electron affinity  Nonpolar covalent bond is formed, where the electrons in the covalent bond are shared equally o Hydrogen- a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other. Synthesis Decomposition reactions o Synthesis – take two smaller chemicals and combine them into a bigger chemical. Requires energy to run (endothermic) o Decomposition – take a larger chemical and break it down into two smaller chemicals. Releases energy during reaction (exothermic) Reactants versus products o Reactants are the chemicals that start the reaction (usually on the left side of the equation), and products are what you are left with when the reaction is complete (usually on the right side of the equation) Acids versus bases o Acids – willing to give up a H+ ion; has a pH less than 7 o Neutral – can function as either an acid or a base; has a pH = 7 o Basic/Alkaline – functions to accept a H+ ion; has a pH greater than 7 o Important note: arterial blood pH is between 7.35 – 7.45. If blood pH is lower than 7.35, it is considered acidic and if it is higher than 7.45, it is basic. If the pH is between 7.35-7.45 it is considered neutral. Cells and cell membranes  Cell Organelles and their functions Comprehensive Exam Review Topics  Comprehensive Exam Review Topics  Functions of the plasma membrane o Transport across the membrane  Active transports- utilizes energy to move substance against concentration gradient, lower to higher concentration Depends on factors: ATP, Membrane proteins, Concentration of molecules, Membrane potentials  Passive Transport- does not use ATP as an energy source, occurs from high to low concentration.  Simple Diffusion- moves along concentration gradient, from higher to lower concentration  Facilitated Diffusion  Osmosis- movement of water across semipermeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration o Hypertonicity – solutions have high ECF osmolarity, water moves out of cell, cell shrinks o Isotonicity – solutions have same osmolarity, no net movement of water in or out of cell Comprehensive Exam Review Topics o Hypotonicity – solutions have low ECF osmolarity, water moves into the cell causing swelling and potential bursting o Transmembrane proteins  Facilitated diffusion Mitosis and Meiosis  Chromosomes in the human cell  Steps of mitosis  Interphase o Consists of S phase (DNA division), G1 & G2 (Gap phases) o Semi-conservative replication: One original strand of DNA - 2 new identical strands o Chromatin – DNA wrapped around histones to make it condensed o Chromosomes - further wrapping of chromatin (occurs in prophase)  Mitosis and Cytokinesis o Mitosis – Division of Nucleus o Cytokinesis – the cell itself divides, resulting in two identical daughter cells  Steps of Mitosis o Prophase  nuclear membrane breaks down  chromatin condenses to chromosomes  Spindle fibers form from centrioles  Centrioles migrate to opposite ends of the cell o Metaphase  chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell o Anaphase  chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cells o Telophase  new nuclear membranes form around the two sets of chromosomes  Compare and Contrast Mitosis and Meiosis o Diploid (2n), Haploid (n) o Gametes – sex cells Comprehensive Exam Review Topics Tissues  Main tissue types o Epithelium: Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands. They perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception. o Connective: Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs and the body, store fat, transport substances, protect against disease, and help repair tissue damage. They occur throughout the body. o Muscle: Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract to produce movement of the body parts. The tissue is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels. o Nervous: Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities. It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.  Different tissue subtypes o Epithelium  Simple squamous epithelium: Allows rapid diffusion or transport of substances through membrane; secretes lubricating serous fluid. Air sacs (alveoli) of lungs  Simple cuboidal epithelium: Absorption and secretion; production of protective mucous coat; movement of respiratory mucus. Liver, thyroid, mammary, salivary  Simple columnar epithelium: Absorption; secretion of mucus and other products; movement of egg and embryo in uterine tube  Keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium: Resists abrasion and penetration by pathogenic organisms; retards water loss through skin. Palms and soles are especially heavily keratinized  Stratified squamous epithelium: Resists abrasion and penetration by pathogenic organisms. Tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, anal canal, vagina  Stratified cuboidal epithelium: Contributes to sweat secretion; secretes ovarian hormones; produces sperm. Sweat gland ducts; egg-producing vesicles (follicles) of ovaries; sperm-producing ducts (seminiferous tubules) of testis