Origins of Scientific Writing

TOPIC- WRITING RESEARCH REPORT INTODUCTION A research report is complete only when the research findings have been disseminated through a research report. Writing a report is the last step in research study and requires special skills. To complete this task the researcher needs assistance and guidance from experts. Preparing a research report is not only an important component but also an integral part of the research process. ORIGINS OF SCIENTIFIC WRITING “Knowledge is lost without written records” • Cave paintings and inscriptions were the first attempts to leave records. • About 2000 BC, Papyrus paper was used as a medium of communication. • In 190 BC, parchment made from animal skin came into use. • In 105 AD. the Chinese invented paper. ‘ Knowledge could not be widely circulated with no effective duplication’ • In 1100 AD, the Chinese invented movable type. • In 1455 AD, Gutenberg printed his 42-line Bible from movable type on a printing press. • By the year 1500 thousands of copies of hundreds of books (called "incunabula") were printed. • In 1665, the first scientific journals were published. DEFINITION OF A RESEARCH REPORT “A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.” According to C. A. Brown, “The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it’s purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusions.”According to Goode and Hatt ‘Research report is a written document that communicates the purpose , scope,, objectives, hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally recommendations of a research project to others’Textbook of nursing research and statistics PURPOSES OF RESEARCH REPORT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Publishing them in articles or journals Getting financial aid or grants to conduct further research Presenting findings at a conference or presentation Clinical, educational and administrative use Conveying the interested persons, the whole result of study in sufficient detail and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions 6. Communicating to interested persons the methodology and the result of the study in such a manner as to enable them to understand the research process and to determine the validity of the conclusions 7. Documenting a trial, experiment, investigation or intervention COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT CONSCIOUSNESS CLARITY HONESTY COMPLETENESS ACCURACY FOCUS CONCISENESS Lack of redundancy conciseness saves the readers time and forces the writer to refine his ideas. Fluency of expression and clarity helps the reader to understand the points being made. Freedom from fraud and honesty is necessary to maintain the respect of the reader and the integrity of the author. Having full details; completeness results in a full report, thus enabling the reader to evaluate the study Quality of being accurate and free of errors. Accuracy is necessary to maintain the integrity of the author in the eyes of the reader. An effective report should center on important information A report should concise the information and not waste the time of the reader. TIPS FOR WRITING A GOOD RESEARCH I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Use short, simple sentences. Write in an active voice. Use headings and subheadings to guide the readers. Use bold type in headings to attract attention. Use tables and graphs to break up print pages. Use left and right margin justification. Make sure there are good transitions between sections. Follow directions as stated in the guidelines for writing reports. Have peer review of the research report, if possible. Be ready to edit the proposal many times. METHODS OF COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH REPORT 1. INFORMATIONAL 2. REPRESNTATIONAL a. b. a. 1. 2. b. 1. c. 1. 2. Technical Popular Written Dissertation Scholarly article Oral Paper presentation Posters Printed E printed STYLES OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT 1. IMRAD- introduction, methods, results, discussion/conclusion 2. APA- APA style (also known as APA format) is a writing style and format for academic documents such as scholarly journal articles and books. It is commonly used for citing sources within the field of behavioral and social sciences, including sociology, education, nursing, criminal justice, and anthropology, as well as psychology. It is described in the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA). 3. MLA- The Modern Language Association format is one of the most popular and simplest forms used to attribute information. 4. CHICAGO- The Chicago Manual of Style (abbreviated in writing as CMOS, TCM, or CMS, or sometimes as Chicago[1]) is a style guide for American English published since 1906 by the University of Chicago Press. Its 17 editions (the most recent in 2017) have prescribed writing and citation styles widely used in publishing. GUIDLINES FOR WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT ❑ Develop thinking ❑ Divide narration ❑ Use present tense and active voice ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ Minimise the use of technical jargon or language Tables and figures Objectivity Data confidentiality Revise and rewrite WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT ♦ Journal article and thesis are two important formats of research report writing. ♦ The main aim of the thesis is totally different from the journal article. Areas Requirements Thesis Differ from institute to other Organisation Word length Consists of chapters No particular word limit Format Formatted as a table of content matter Abstract Length longer (approx. 350 words) Introduction Detailed Literature lengthy Methods Discuses detailed methodology Findings All findings to be presented Discussion Complete discussion about results and findings PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORT Article Should meet journal standard. Depends on journal to be published Consists of sections World limit based on guidelines Manuscript format 150-250 words concise shorter Specific methodology and experiments Only selected ones Concise discussion about results a. Length –long enough to cover the subject, but short enough to maintain interest. b. Interesting- should sustain reader's interest. c. Avoid abstarct terminology- write in objective style, in simple language avoiding expressions. d. Presentable – charts, graphs and statistical tables may be used. e. Appropriate –lay out should be appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem. f. Zero grammatical mistakes g. Logical presentation- report must present the logical analysis of the matter. h. Originality –should show originality and should necessary be an attempt to solve intellectual problem. i. Appearance –must be attractive, neat and clean whether typed or printed. STEPS IN WRITING REPORT CONTENTS OF A REPORT PRELIMINARY SECTION TITLE PAGE APPROVAL SHEET ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT INTRODUCTION REVIEW OF LITERATURE METHODOLOGY RESULT AND DISCUSSION REFERENCE SECTION BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES CONCLUSION LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ABSTARCT KEYWORDS SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATIONS IMPLICATIONS ELEMENTS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT TITLE PAGE CERTIFICATES OF • Bonafide work • Supervisors • Self declaration ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: Introduction ➢ Background and the need for the problem ➢ Statement of the problem ➢ Aims, objectives,assumptions,hypothesis,delimitations and operational definitions. CHAPTER II- Review of literature CHAPTER III-Research Methodology ➢ Research approach ➢ Research design ➢ Research variables ➢ Study setting ➢ Population, sample, sample size and sampling technique ➢ Development and description of study tool ➢ Data collection methods ➢ Ethical considerations ➢ Pilot study ➢ Plan for data analysis CHAPTER IV -Results CHAPTER V-Discussion LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS ABSTARCT LIST OF APPENDICES CHAPTER VI-summary, conclusion, implications, limitations, recommendations Bibliography Appendix PRELIMINARY SECTION ❑ • • • • • TITLE PAGE First page of the report All items entered between the margins No terminal punctuations used Concise and should indicate Cleary the purpose of the study Presented in capital letters, but the initial letters of principle words are capitalised in other items. • If the title is longer than one line- it is double spaced and placed in an inverted triangle. eg • Experimental Study on Effectiveness of Sleep | Hygiene Program on Quality of Sleep and Selected Cognitive, Outcomes among Nursing Students at SNI • Variable's being examined should be written as part of title. • Title should be short, no more than 20 words • No acronyms, no formulas, subscripts or non-alphabetical symbols. ❑ APPROVAL SHEET- the institution requires an approval sheet; a page of the dissertation/ thesis allows space for the necessary certificate and the signature of the supervisor/advisor, or the chairman/ the member of the committee or Head of the department concerned. ❑ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT- is a matter of courtesy. The invigilator acknowledges the guidance and assurance he has received while carrying out his study. ❑ TABLE OF CONTENTS- list the various chapters with their respective page numbers. Helps to locate quickly each section of it. Headings (capital letters) and subdivisions are mentioned (small letters) and each followed by correct citations. ❑ LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES- If a report contains a large number of tables and figures, these can be listed in the table of contents. Page numbers are numbered at the center of the bottom margin with Roman Numerals. ❑ ABSTARCT - a brief summary of a research article, dissertation on review of conference proceedings or in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help reader to quicky ascertain the purpose. Length ranges from 100-150 words. → Contains- background, introduction, objectives, methods, results and conclusions. → Avoid –lengthy background information, citations, details of routine lan reports, statistical methods or software used, abbreviations, results that are not discussed in the text. ❑ KEYWORDS – important words/concepts found in research questions or thesis. ❑ MAIN BODY OF THE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK • Discusses background of the research project. • Purpose,statement of factors → Significance of the problemjustification with literature support. → Purpose/objectives- statements of objectives → Assumptions and delimitations → Definition of important termsoperational definitions, any terms used in the study → Hypothesis or research questions that is formulated • Overall conceptual underpinnings of the study • Abstract and logical REVIEW OF LITERATUTRE METHEDOLOGY RESULT AND DISCUSSION SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION • Links findings to body of knowledge Provides a critical analysis of the body of work already done by proposed topic of the study. Technical aspects of the study, research approach and designs, size, selection of sample, variables, controls, tools, validity and reliability, statistical procedures. Analyses and interpretation done through text, tables and figures Compared in terms of similarity or contraindication with findings of existing literature Brief restatement of problem, description of procedures, major findings, conclusions and recommendations for future Both negative and positive results. RECOMMENDATIONS IMPLICATIONS REFERENCES ❑ BIBLIOGRAPHY- list of authors, sources,-books, newspapers, periodicals, reports, public documents ❑ APPENDICES • Copies of questionnaires or interview outlines • Approval of plan of thesis • Tool validity certificate • Letter seeking permission to conduct research • List of tool validators, (experts) • Ethical clearance letter and permission to use standardized tools from authors needs to be enclosed. • Consent Format • Approval letter of Clinical Trial Registry of India (CTRI) (If applicable) • Master data sheet. ❑ CONCLUSION ❑ HOW TO WRITE A THESIS •A PhD thesis in the science is supposed to present the candidate’s original research i.e. it is a scientific paper •Unlike the scientific paper, the thesis may describe more than one topic, and it may present more than one approach to some topics. •The thesis may present all or most of the data obtained in the student’s thesis related research. RESEARCH ARTICLE ❖ DEVELOPING RESEARCH REPORT WRITING SKILLS USING CORPORA BY Eric Fringal,Georgia State University,Atlanta,GA,USA ❑ Eric Friginal is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Applied Linguistics and ESL at Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA. He specializes in applied corpus linguistics, the analysis of professional spoken discourse, ESP/EAP research, and technology and language teaching and learning. RESEARCH QUESTION- Do corpus tools and instruction contribute positively to the development of the research report writing skills of students in forestry? ABSTRACT • This exploratory study investigates the use of corpora to develop the research report writing skills of college-level students enrolled in a professional forestry program. Specifically, the study identifies the contribution of a concordance program in highlighting the characteristics of effective writing in the field of forestry by focusing on a set of selected linguistic features: (a) linking adverbials, (b) reporting verbs, (c) verb tenses (past and present), and (d) passive sentence structures • These features were selected for the study based on a comparison of a corpus of published forestry articles vis-à-vis a corpus of students’ research reports. • Two groups of forestry students (N = 28, with 14 students per group) were randomly assigned, one receiving six hours of instruction over a two-week period using corpus tools and materials, while the other group was given traditional research report writing instruction • The reports written by the students in the two groups before and after the treatment were compared with the distributional data from the corpus of published articles (i.e., professional corpus). • Overall, results show that corpus instruction contributed positively to the patterning of the frequencies and distributional data of linking adverbials, reporting verbs, and verb tenses in the students’ research reports relative to the professional corpus. METHODS AND SAMPLE SIZERandom sampling N=28, with 14 students per group RESULT • corpus instruction contributed positively to the patterning of the frequencies and distributional data of linking adverbials, reporting verbs, and verb tenses in the students’ research reports relative to the professional corpus. SUMMARY The following topics were discussed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. i. ii. iii. iv. ❑ ❑ Introduction Origin Definitions Purposes Components Types of writing a good research Methods of communication of research report Styles of research Guidelines for writing a research report Precautions Steps in writing Contents Elements How to write a research thesis Research article CONCLUSION The results of a research project are publishable, the project should be communicated in the form of a research report. A report conveys information and sometimes recommendations from researchers who have investigated a topic in detail. It is the final product or outcome of the research work. It is a concise, clear communication of the important findings of the research work. REFERENCE 1. Nancy Burns and Susan K grove. Understanding Nurssing Research: Building An Evidence-Based Practice. Fourth edition. Evoive.Elsiever publications,2012 New Delhi, chapter 2-Introduction to research process,pg-44-56. 2. Suresh K Sharma. Nursing Research And Statistics.4th edition.2015, elsiever publications. Chapter 11-communication and utilisation of research.pg-264-267. 3. Raman Kalia;Bharat Pareek:forwarded K Reddemma.Textbook Of Nursing Research And Biostatistics.vision publications. Edition 3.chapter 19communication of research findings and publication ethics.pg-386-395. 4. Sreevani Rentala:K Reddemma.Basics in Nursing Rsearch and Biostatistics,jaypee publications.2nd edition.new delhi.chapter10-Dessemination and utilisation of research findings-pg-291-305. 5. LoBiondo-wood.Judith Haber.Nursing Research:Methods And Critical Appraisal for Evidence Bsed Practice.Mosby:Elsevier. 6. w.Cheng etal.The Language Leraner as Language Researcher:Putting Corpus Linguistics On the Timetable.