Final Exam Study Guide

BIO 1401 Final Exam Study Guide – Scavenger Hunt Name__________________________ Directions: Using your textbook, PowerPoint slides, and notes, answer as many questions as you can on your own. Circle the number of any questions you struggle to answer on your own. On Wednesday, you will form a small group (3-4 people) to answer the remaining questions. You will turn in your scavenger hunt at the end of class on Wednesday for a chance to earn 10 extra credit points. You will get your scavenger hunt back on Friday, and we will address any particularly challenging questions as a class. The final exam will be cumulative and consist of 70 questions (multiple choice and short answer). You will take the exam on Monday, 12/13, 1-3pm in Room D-218 (unless other accommodations have been made). Unit Exam 1 Material Chapter 3 1. Unsaturated fatty acids have a lower melting point and higher fluidity than saturated fatty acids. Why? The more unsaturated, the lower the melting point. They have a higher fluidity and are liquids at room temp. The double bonds make the unsaturated fats more fluid. Saturated have single bonds between carbons, and unsaturated have double bonds between the carbons. 2. Which parts of the phospholipid bilayer are hydrophobic and which are hydrophilic? The phospholipid bilayer consists of two layers of phospholipids , with a hydrophobic, or water-hating, interior and a hydrophilic, or water-loving, exterior. The hydrophilic (polar) head group and hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains) are depicted in the single phospholipid molecule. 3. How do competitive regulators differ from allosteric regulators of enzymes? Competitive inhibition is when a substance binds directly at the active site of an enzyme preventing it from binding the substrate. They bind to the active site. It competes with the ligand. Allosteric regulation is when a substance binds an enzyme at a site other than the active site and causes a change in affinity at the active site for its substrate. Changes the shape of the enzyme and binds somewhere other than the active site. Chapter 4 1. A concentration gradient is formed when the number of molecules on one side of a semipermeable membrane is _____higher_more concentrated_____ to the number of molecules on the other side. 2. Osmosis refers to the movement of ___water_______ while diffusion refers to the movement of _____particles_________. 3. Pinocytosis occurs when a cell engulfs water and dissolved ions. Exocytosis occurs when a cell excretes material. ______Phagocytosis________ occurs when a cell engulfs particles. Chapter 5 1. What role does oxygen play in mitochondria? (Hint: aerobic metabolism and the electron transport chain). In mitochondria, oxygen is used to produce carbon dioxide as a waste product and they use oxygen to transform nutriments from the digestive process into energy that can be used directly by the cell ( ATP ). It accepts the electron and final electron acceptor in the chain. 2. Define gluconeogenesis. It synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrates and releases free glucose into the blood. It occurs during fast and flight and glucagon and cortisol activate it. Its purpose is to provide blood glucose for cells that need glucose for metabolic fuel. 3. Explain what happens to carbon during carbon fixation in photosynthesis (Hint: it must occur 6 times to produce the final product)? Carbon fixation is a process that involves fixing a carbon into place; plants want to take carbon dioxide (CO2) out of the air and tack it to carbohydrates so it's not floating around all over the place. Used with water to form sugar. CO2+H2O—>sugars (C6H2O6) Chapter 6 1. A cell must have a ________receptor____ to a particular signal in order to respond to it. 2. Define or illustrate autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, and endocrine signaling. Juxtacrine signaling requires direct contact between the two cells. Paracrine signals diffuse to and affect nearby cells. Autocrine signals affect the same cells that release them. Endocrine signaling: hormones are transported long distances by bulk flow. 3. What are the 2 types of cellular receptors (in other words, where are they found)? internal receptors and cell-surface receptors. Chapter 7 1. Gametes (sperm and ova) contain only 1 copy of the parent’s chromosomes, thus they are _________haploid_____. After fertilization, the zygote has 2 sets of chromosomes (1 from each parent) and is _______diploid_______. 2. (Circle one) Asexual reproduction results in (more/less) genetic variation than sexual reproduction. 3. Necrosis occurs when cells die due to disease or lack of nutrients. On the other hand, ___________Apoptosis___ occurs when a healthy cell is signaled to undergo programmed cell death. Chapter 8 1. What is the difference between genotype and phenotype? Genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual and phenotype is the visible characteristics of the expressed genes under the influence of the environment. 2. (Circle one) A test cross is used to determine whether the genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype is (homozygous dominant/heterozygous/homozygous recessive). Chapter 10 1. The central dogma of molecular biology states that genetic information flows from DNA to _______RNA_________ to _________Polypeptide/Protein__________. 2. A polypeptide sequence is composed of introns and exons. Which of these are removed and which are spliced together to form the final protein? Exons are spliced together to form the final protein while the introns are removed to form the final protein. Unit Exam 2 Material Chapter 13 1. What is the result of sexual selection? Enhances mating success, but may be non adaptive in males 2. Draw a diagram of what happens to the frequency of a trait (e.g. beak size in birds) when a population experiences directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection. SENT PICTURE Chapter 16 1. Which species concept (morphological, lineage, biological) is best used to differentiate between 2 cryptic species? Morphological 2. Give an example of habitat, temporal, gametic, and behavioral isolation. Are these considered pre-zygotic or post-zygotic isolation mechanisms? Prezygotic- Mechanicaldifferences in sizes and shapes of reproductive organs. In plants, it may involve pollinators. Temporal isolation- species may breed at different times of year or day. Behavioral- individuals reject or fail to recognize mating behaviors of other species./Postzygotic- Habitat Isolation- two closely related species evolve preferences for living or mating in different habitats Ex: apple maggot flies and Lake Malawi cichlids. Gametic Isolation- sperm and eggs of different species will not fuse; important for aquatic animals that release gametes into the water. Chapter 20 1. In angiosperms, double fertilization results in the embryo and a specialized tissue which provides nutrition to the embryo. What is the tissue called? Endosperm 2. (Circle one) Male gametophytes develop from (microspores/macrospores) whereas female gametophytes develop from (microspores/macrospores). 3. (Circle one) Cones are the reproductive organ of the (gymnosperm/angiosperm), and flowers are the reproductive organ of the (gymnosperm/angiosperm). Chapter 24 1. A nutrient is considered an essential micro- or macro-nutrient because A nutrient is said to be “essential” if obtained from an external source, either because the organism cannot synthesize it or produces insufficient quantities. macro-lagers amounts. micro-smaller amounts 2. The process of cation exchange allows the plant to take up minerals. Where does this occur? In the root 3. Define transpiration, cohesion, and tension as they relate to the flow of water through the plant. Transpiration-evaporation of water from cells in the leaves, Cohesion of water molecules in the xylem sap due to hydrogen bonding, Tension on the xylem sap resulting from transpiration Chapter 40 1. List the following types of species in order as energy flows up (bottom to top) in a food web: secondary consumer, primary producer, primary consumer, tertiary consumer). At the very bottom/Primary producers or autotrophs, convert energy and inorganic materials into organic compounds that can be used by the rest of the community. (nuts, grass, berries, etc). Primary consumers (bison, elk, hare, beaver)-herbivores eat primary producers. Secondary consumers (wolf and weasel)-carnivores eat herbivores. Tertiary consumers (wolf and weasel)-eat secondary consumers 2. Describe the relationship between a cheetah and a gazelle involved in an evolutionary arms race. What types of adaptations will each develop in response to the other? The opposing interests of the consumer and the resource species can lead to an “Evolutionary arms race.” Prey continually evolves better defenses, and predators offenses. Unit 3 Material Chapter 28 1. (Circle one) Basal metabolic rate (BMR) increases as body size (increases/decreases). The smaller the animal, the higher the BMI. 2. Define homeostasis. refers to stability of the internal environment and the mechanisms that maintain it. Parallel concept to regulation and has the same pros and cons; it is energetically expensive 3. (Circle one) Insulin is released when blood glucose levels (rise/fall) and glucagon is released when blood glucose levels (rise/fall). 4. Create a flow chart of the path which food takes as it travels through the gastrointestinal tract. Identify the midgut, hindgut, rectum, esophagus, stomach, and mouth. Explain where digestion of lipids, carbohydrates, and protein occurs, and where absorption of lipids, carbohydrates, protein, water, and minerals occurs. Chapter 29 1. How are blood vessels arranged in countercurrent heat exchange? What direction does the heat flow? The heat flows in opposite directions 2. What is the function of an internal biological clock? the biological clock is your body’s internal timing device; it’s the master clock that is in charge of your sleep-wake cycle. 3. Circadian rhythm is a ______daily_____ activity cycle, whereas circannual rhythm is a ______annual______ activity cycle. Chapter 32 1. What is the difference between hormones and pheromones? Hormones-chemical substance, secreted into the blood by endocrine cells, that regulates the function of other cells. Act at very low blood concentrations. Effects on target cells are initiated by noncovalent binding of the hormone to receptor proteins on target cells, giving them specificity. Pheromones- released into the environment and affect other individuals. 2. Increasing levels of oxytocin to stimulate uterine contractions during birth is an example of a _________________ feedback loop. 3. The pituitary produces ADH, oxytocin, TSH, FSH, and LH. Which organ or target tissue do each of these hormones influence? Growth Hormone (GH)- anterior pituitary- acts on a wide variety of tissues to promote growth. Oxytocin - posterior pituitary (signals from the brain) - stimulates uterine contractions during birth and milk flow from the breasts. Contractions to release the milk. ADH- Posterior (cells in kidneys or signals from the brain)- controls water excretion by the kidneys. TSH- thyroid is the target organ. anterior (non neural endocrine cells or tropins)- controls the thyroid gland and stimulates it to be an active form so it can help in your metabolism. ACTH- anterior pituitary gland (adrenal cortex)- controls the adrenal cortex, adrenal glands that control cortisol which is the stress hormone. FSH and LH- anterior - Follicle stimulating hormone, stimulates the maturation of eggs, in males it is going to stimulate the production of testosterone. Ovaries in females and testes in males for target organs. Chapter 34 1. Which cells in the male reproductive tract produce testosterone in response to LH? Which cells provide support to developing sperm? Leydig cells produce testosterone in response to LH. Sertoli cells nurture sperm. 2. Spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues until death. Oogenesis begins ____________before birth___________ and continues until _____puberty_____________. Ends at menopause, and when females no longer ovulate. 3. Bright coloring in birds and large claws in crabs are examples of which of the following: primary reproductive organs, accessory reproductive structures, or secondary sexual characteristics? Secondary sexual characteristics 4. A surge in the concentration of which hormone results in ovulation? LH Chapter 36 1. What do toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize? recognize and bind to structures on microbes called pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). 2. What is the first step in inflammation once an injury occurs (e.g. scraping your knee or getting a splinter)? Inflammation is a coordinated response to infection or injury; it results in redness, swelling, heat, and pain at the damaged site. Isolates damage, recruits defense cells and molecules to the site, and promotes healing. the 1st step is that Mass cells will release histine. 3. An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response. An ______antigenic determinants, or epitopes________ is the specific site on the antigen that is recognized by the immune system. 4. What is the difference between clonal selection and clonal deletion? Clonal Deletion-When B and T cells encounter antigens during their early development, any cells that show potential to mount an immune response to self antigens undergo apoptosis (clonal deletion). Failure of clonal deletion can lead to autoimmunity./Clonal Selection-Clonal selection: Antigen binding “selects” a particular B or T cell for proliferation. 5. List the three phases of the immune response (Hint: RAE). Recognitions, Activation, and Effector 6. Construct a flow chart of the first (innate), second (innate), and third (adaptive) lines of immune defense, and list the components of each. SENT PICTURE