Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia

Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia GUIDE TO READING The BIG Idea Physical Geography Fertile soil between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers allowed an early civilization to flourish in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, located in what is now southern Iraq, was one area where civilization began. Its people developed complex economic, political, and social structures. Such inventions as written language improved the quality of their lives. As different groups fought for power, they set up the world’s first empires and codified their laws. Content Vocabulary • polytheistic (p. 27) • city-state (p. 28) • ziggurat (p. 29) • theocracy (p. 29) • cuneiform (p. 30) • empire (p. 32) • patriarchal (p. 33) The physical environment of Mesopotamia supported the development of civilization and influenced people’s religious beliefs. HISTORY & YOU Is your town located near a river? Read about how the fertile Academic Vocabulary • transport (p. 29) Geography and Religion • innovations (p. 30) soil of a river valley supported the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture and the birth of civilization. • Uruk (p. 28) • Akkadians (p. 32) • Sargon (p. 32) • Babylon (p. 33) • Hammurabi (p. 33) Civilization depends on large permanent settlements. Fertile river valleys that can support a large population are ideal locations for such settlements. Highly organized societies then evolved in these regions. People and Places • Tigris River (p. 26) • Euphrates River (p. 26) • Mesopotamia (p. 26) • Fertile Crescent (p. 26) • Sumerians (p. 26) The Fertile Crescent Reading Strategy Categorizing Information As you read, complete a chart like the one below to help you study. Political Life Cultural Life Inventions The ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the rivers.” Mesopotamia was at the eastern end of the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Rich soil and abundant crops allowed the land to sustain an early civilization. Mesopotamia had little rain, but over the years its soil had been enriched by layers of silt—material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile silt. This flooding, however, was unpredictable. It depended on the melting of snows in the upland mountains where the rivers began. People in the valley could not tell exactly when the floods would come or how large they would be. Therefore, people in ancient Mesopotamia learned to control the flow of the rivers. By using irrigation and drainage ditches, farmers were able to grow crops regularly. An abundance of food allowed many people to live together in cities, and civilization emerged. Mesopotamian civilization refers to the achievements of people from three general areas: Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. The Sumerians were the creators of the first Mesopotamian civilization. ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA 20°E 40°E 60°E MT ASIA MINOR err Euph r Nineveh ZA G Ancient shoreline Fertile Crescent RO Byblos SM Sidon TNS SYRIAN R ive LOWER . SUMER r Tyre DESERT EGYPT Babylon Jerusalem Jordan Susa River Umma Lagash Uruk Dead Sea Eridu Ur OT AM es at an S ea er Riv ris Tig IA ane ASSYRIA M AKKAD ES OP dit 40°N N Nile River Me S. ea n S US ia AS sp UC Ca CA B l a ck S e a EUROPE UPPER EGYPT AFRICA A R A B I A N D E S E R T north harbor temple of E-nun-makh shrine of Nanna 200 meters e Riv r 200 yards 0 S 400 kilometers 400 miles 20°N Lambert Conformal Conic projection A r a bia n Se a Royal palace Temple Other building palace of E-Khursag canal s te hra Eup houses royal tombs temple of Nin-gal 0 0 E W fortress ziggurat 0 ea dS court of Nanna Re palace (6th century BC) “City of Ur” (A Per ra sia bi n an G Guulf lf) west harbor houses (c. 1800 BC) temple cit of Enki yw all s The Growth of Religion The physical environment affected the way Mesopotamians viewed the world. A harsh climate and frequent famines convinced them that unreliable supernatural forces controlled this world. In the presence of nature, Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this poem relates: PRIMARY SOURCE “The rampant flood which no man can oppose, Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble, In an appalling blanket folds mother and child, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.” —in ”Mesopotamia,” from Before Philosophy, Henri Frankfort et al. In Mesopotamia, people looked to religion to answer their questions about life. To them, powerful spiritual beings—gods and goddesses—permeated all aspects of the universe. The Mesopotamians identified nearly three thousand gods and goddesses. Their religion was polytheistic because of this belief in many gods. According to the beliefs of the Mesopotamians, humans were supposed to obey and serve the gods. By their nature, humans were inferior to the gods and could never be sure what the gods might do to or for them. ✓Reading Check Explaining What role did geography play in the development of Mesopotamian civilization? CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia Religion played a powerful role in the economic, political, and social structure of Mesopotamian city-states. HISTORY & YOU How are state and local government related in your community? Read about the connection in Mesopotamia. The origins of the Sumerian people remain a mystery. By 3000 b.c., they had established a number of independent cities in southern Mesopotamia, including Eridu, Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they gained political and economic control over the surrounding countryside. They formed city-states, the basic units of Sumerian civilization. Sumerian Cities Sumerian cities were surrounded by walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wall six miles (10 km) long, with defense towers located every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 m) along the wall. It is estimated that Uruk had a population of around 50,000 people by 2700 b.c., making it one of the largest city-states. City dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both the small houses of peasants and the larger buildings of the city officials, priests, and priestesses. People living in city-states gained a sense of identity. They now had a group to which they belonged, beyond the basic family unit. Although Mesopotamia had little stone or wood for building purposes, it did have plenty of mud. Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake in the Ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 B.C. The ziggurat at Ur was constructed during the reign of Ur-Nammu around 2100 B.C. It stands approximately 70 feet (21 m) high. The temple is believed to have been for the moon god, Nanna. Ziggurats ceased to be built after Mesopotamia was conquered by the Persians in the 500s B.C. Only priests were allowed to climb to the temple. One theory suggests the steps represented a stairway to heaven, bringing the priests closer to the gods. 1. Making Inferences Why do you think priests were the only people permitted to enter the temples? 2. Drawing Conclusions Why do you suppose Sumerians built temples on top of ziggurats? hot sun until they were hard enough to use for building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably creative with mud bricks. They invented the arch and the dome, and they built some of the largest brick buildings in the world. Mud bricks are still used in rural areas of Southwest Asia today. Religion and Rulers n Sea spia . sR Regardless of their origins, kings held great power. They led armies, supervised the building of public works, and organized workers for the irrigation projects on ri Tig —anonymous Sumerian petitioner Ca “You in your judgement, you are the son of Anu [god of the sky]. Your commands, like the work of a god, cannot be reversed. Your words, like rain pouring down from heaven, are without number.” Although the economy of the Sumerian city-states was based chiefly on farming, trade and industry became important as well. The peoples of Mesopotamia made woolen textiles and pottery, but they were particularly well known for their metalwork. Copper, gold, and silver were already being used for jewelry and some tools. The Sumerians discovered that when tin is added to copper, it makes bronze. Bronze has a lower melting point, Mesopotamia which makes it easier to Black Sea Trade route cast than copper. Bronze is also a harder metal than Mediterranean Sea copper and corrodes less. Trade route Euphrates R. It could also be melted INDIA down and remade when it Persian wore out. Gulf The Sumerians imported Arabian Sea copper, tin, and timber in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, wheat, and metal goods. Traders traveled by land to the eastern Mediterranean in the west and by sea to India in the east. The invention of the wheel, around 3000 b.c., led to wheeled carts, which made the transport of goods much easier. Sumerian city-states contained three major social groups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Nobles included royal and priestly officials and their families. Commoners worked for palace and temple estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftspeople. Probably 90 percent or more of the people were farmers. Slaves belonged to palace officials, who used them mostly in building projects. Temple officials most often used female slaves to weave cloth and grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves to farm their lands. Sea PRIMARY SOURCE Economy and Society Red The most prominent building in a Sumerian city was the temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of the city. This temple was often built atop a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses owned the cities. The people devoted much of their wealth to building temples and elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who served the gods. The temples and related buildings served as the center of the city physically, economically, and even politically. Surplus food and crafts were stored in the temples, which could then be distributed or traded. The priests and priestesses who supervised the temples held a great deal of power. In fact, historians believe that in the early stages of the city-states, priests and priestesses played an important role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that the gods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy—a government by divine authority. Even when power passed into the hands of kings, Sumerians believed that these rulers derived their power from the gods and were the agents of the gods. As one person said in a petition to his king: which farming depended. The army, the government, and the priests and priestesses all aided the kings in their rule. As befitted their power, Sumerian kings, their wives, and their children lived in large palaces. ✓Reading Check Explaining Why were the early Mesopotamian city-states considered to be theocracies? CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt