University:
Glendale Community College
Course:
BIO160 | Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology
Academic year:

2022
Views:

498

Pages:

19
Author:

hugdeigury7

Chapter 7 Carbohydrates Overview n Carbohydrates – main ingredient for energy production ¨ Most abundant biomolecule in nature ¨ Direct link between solar energy & chemical energy ¨ Glucose – our main energy source Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Carbohydrate: polyhydroxyaldehyde or polyhydroxyketone, most abundant biomolecules in nature, biological functions include §Energy sources – glucose §Structural elements – cellulose & chitin in plants & insects §Cellular communication & identity §Precursors in production of other biomolecules §Monosaccharides - simple sugars §Aldoses - aldehyde functional group §Ketoses - ketone functional group §Building blocks of all carbohydrates §General formula CnH2nOn or (CH2O)n where n varies from 3 – 8 §Oligosaccharides – 2-10 monosaccharides §Polysaccharides - >10 monosaccharides Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Carbohydrates are also classified by the number of carbon atoms they contain §Trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses §Most abundent in living cells are hexoses and pentoses §Class names often combine information about carbon number and functional group §Glyceraldehyde contains a stereocenter on #2 C (chiral); exists as a pair of enantiomers §Chiral carbon – asymmetric carbon in molecule having mirrorimage form §Enantiomers - Mirror-images stereoisomers Figure 7.2 Glyceraldehyde (an Aldotriose) and Dihydroxyacetone (a Ketotriose) Section 7.1: Monosaccharides 3-C sugars have 1 chiral C so only 2 enanitomers; more chiral C more possible stereoisomers § Diastereomers: stereoisomers that are not mirror images § example: D-ribose (-OHs on right); L-ribose (-OHs on left) § example: D-arabinose and Larabinose § Epimers: diastereomers that differ from each other in configuration at only one chiral carbon Figure 7.4 The Optical Isomers D- and L- Ribose and D- and L- Arabinose Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Fischer projection: 2-D representation shows tetrahedral stereo-centers §Carbons - numbered starting most highly oxidized C, top § D- or L- configuration determined by arrangement on C-5 § D-glucose, hydroxyl on right; Lglucose hydroxyl on left Section 7.1: Monosaccharides Cyclic Structure of Monosaccharides §Cyclization - interaction between functional groups on distant carbons §C1 to C5, to make a cyclic hemiacetal §Cyclization using C2 to C5 results in hemiketal formation. §Carbonyl carbon is new chiral center and becomes an anomeric carbon Figure 7.5 Formation of Hemiacetals and Hemiketals Section 7.1: Monosaccharides Figure 7.6 Monosaccharide Structure §Two possible diastereomers from cyclization are called anomers §a-D-glucose – OH on R; b-D-glucose – OH on L §5- and 6-membered hemiacetals are represented as planar pentagons or hexagons §Commonly written with the anomeric carbon (C1) on right; hemiacetal oxygen to the back right §D-sugar form, when the anomeric hydroxyl is up it gives a b-anomeric form (right above) while down gives the a-anomeric form (left) Figure 7.7 Haworth Structures of the Anomers of D-Glucose Section 7.1: Monosaccharides Figure 7.8 Furan and Pyran §Five-membered rings are called furanoses and sixmembered rings are pyranoses §Cyclic form of fructose is fructofuranose, while glucose in the pyranose form is glucopyranose Figure 7.9 Fischer and Haworth Representations of D-Fructose Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Conformational Structures §Furanoses are close to planar ü Haworth projection adequately represent §Pyranoses more accurately represented as strain-free chair conformation ü a-D-Glucopyranose - OH on anomeric C ü Figure 7.10 a- and bD-glucose down/back b-D-Glucopyranose – OH on anomeric C on plane/right Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Mutarotation §a- and b-forms of monosaccharides are readily interconverted in aqueous environments §Spontaneous process produces an equilibrium mixture of a- and b-forms in both furanose and pyranose ring structures §Open chain form can participate in redox reactions Figure 7.11 Equilibrium Mixture of D-Glucose Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Oxidation—undergo several oxidation reactions in presence of metal ions or certain enzymes §Oxidation of aldehyde group yields aldonic acid §Oxidation of terminal CH2OH group yields uronic acid §Oxidation of both groups yields aldaric acid §Lactone -produced if the carbonyl groups of aldonic or uronic acids react with an OH group in the same molecule §Readily produced in nature - L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) §Vitamin C is a powerful reducing agent, protects cells from reactive oxygen and nitrogen species Section 7.1: Monosaccharides Reduction – aldehyde and ketone groups yields sugar alcohols, alditols §Reducing sugars - reduced by weak, oxidizing agents such as Benedict’s reagent §Needs open chain - all aldoses are reducing sugars §ketoses (fructose) are reducing sugars also, due to isomerization Figure 7.14 Reaction of Glucose with Benedict’s Reagent §Alditols - used in commercial food processing and in pharmaceuticals (e.g., sorbitol can be used to prevent moisture loss) Section 7.1: Monosaccharides Figure 7.16 Isomerization of DGlucose to Form D-Mannose and D-Fructose §Isomerization - undergo several types of isomerization §D-glucose incubated in an alkaline solution for several hours produces two isomers: D-mannose and Dfructose §Both involve an enediol intermediate Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Transformation of glucose to fructose is an aldose-ketose interconversion §Transformation of glucose to mannose is referred to as epimerization Figure 7.16 Isomerization of D-Glucose to Form D-Mannose and D-Fructose Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Esterification - free OH groups of carbohydrates can be converted to esters by reactions with acids §Can dramatically change a sugar’s chemical and physical properties §Phosphate and sulfate esters most common in nature ü Phosphate esters are formed during reactions with ATP ü Sulfate esters – found predominantly in the proteoglycan components of connective tissue ü Participate in forming of salt bridges between carbohydrate chains Section 7.1: Monosaccharides Figure 7.17 Formation of Acetals and Ketals §Glycoside Formation—hemiacetals and hemiketals react with alcohols to form the corresponding acetal and ketal §Cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal form reacts with an alcohol a glycosidic linkage is formed, compound a glycoside ü Chemically an ether, ROR’ ü Naming of glycosides specifies the sugar component – glucose and fructose are glucoside and fructoside §Disaccharide – acetal linkage between hemiacetal hydroxyl of 1 monosaccharide & hydroxyl of another §Polysaccharides – many monosaccharides linked together Section 7.1: Monosaccharides §Glycosylation Reactions attach sugars or glycans (sugar polymers) to proteins or lipids §Catalyzed by glycosyl transferases §Glycosidic bonds are formed between anomeric carbons in certain glycans and oxygen or nitrogen of other types of molecules, resulting in N- or O-glycosidic bonds §Glycation is reaction of reducing sugars with nucleophilic nitrogen atoms in a nonenzymatic reaction §Most researched is the nonenzymatic glycation of protein (Maillard reaction) §Schiff base that forms rearranges to a stable ketoamine, called Amadori product §Can further react to form advanced glycation end products (AGEs) §Promote inflammatory processes and involved in age-related diseases Section 7.1: Important Monosaccharides §Glucose (D-Glucose) —originally called dextrose, it is found in large quantities throughout the natural world §Primary fuel for living cells §Preferred energy source for brain cells and cells without mitochondria (erythrocytes) §Dietary sources: plant starch, disaccharides lactose, maltose, sucrose §Fructose (D-Fructose) - fruit sugar, because of its high content in fruit §Per-gram basis, it is twice as sweet as sucrose; often used as a sweetening agent in processed food §Sperm use fructose as an energy source §Galactose is necessary to synthesize a variety of important biomolecules §Important biomolecules - lactose, glycolipids, phospholipids, proetoglycan, glycoproteins §Galactosemia is a genetic disorder resulting from a missing enzyme in galactose metabolism Section 7.1: Monosaccharide Derivatives §Uronic Acid - a-D-glucuronate (7.24a) and its epimer b-L-iduronate (7.24b) are important in animals §D-Glucuronic acid is used in the liver to improve water solubility to remove waste molecules §Amino Sugars - a hydroxyl group (usually on carbon 2) is replaced with an amine group §D-Glucosamine (a) and D-galactosamine (b) are most common and often attached to proteins or lipids §Deoxy Sugars - have an –OH replaced by an –H or –CH3 §2-deoxy-D-ribose (7.25b) is pentose sugar of DNA; fucose (7.25a) part of ABO blood group determinants