12. Mughals

12. MUGHALS Babur (1526-1530) • Was a descendent of Timur on his father’s side and Chengiz Khan on his mother side His family belonged to Chaghatayids. • Originally ruled over Farghana (Afghanistan). He became the sultan at the early age of 12, when his father Sultan Umar Shaikh Mirza died. Early battles: 1. Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526 AD) • Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi • Use of Guns • Tulguma system of warfare • Distributed all his wealth among his soldiers and earn the title Shah Qalandar. 2. Battle of Khanwah (March 1527 AD) • Defeated Rana Sana • Declared Jehad for this battle. 3. Battle of Chanderi (January 1528 AD) • Defeated Medini Rai • Sher Shah Suri fought for Babur. 4. Battle of Ghaghra (May 1529 AD) • Against the ruler of Bengal Nusrat Shah. • Wrote his memoir in Turkey as “TUJUK-iBABRI” HUMAYUN (1530-40 AD) & Again 1555 to 1556 AD • Full Name – Nasiruddin Mohammad Humayun. • Battle of Dadrah in 1532 AD against Afghans. • An expedition against the ruler of Gujarat Bahadur Shah in 1535-36. • Battle of Kannauj 1540: Humayun was defeated by Sher Suri and rule of Afghan began in 1540 and continued up to 1555 A.D. After two successful battle (Macchiwara and Sirhind) • Humayun regained his empire in 1555 but died soon in 1556 after a fall from the stairs of his personal library. • Gulbadan Begum, his half-sister wrote Humayunnama. Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) (The Afghan Interlude) • Real name was Farid. Began his career with the 37 administration of his father Hasan’s IQTA at Sahasram in south Bihar. • Later he moved to the court of the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Sultan Muhammad Nuhani, who gave him the title “Sher Khan’ for his bravery. • Died in 1545 while campaigning against Kalinjar Fort. Sher Shah’s Administration • For administrative convenience, Sher shah divided his whole empire into provinces, which were further divided into 47 division called Sarkar (under Shiqdar-Shiqdaran and Munsif-i-Musifan) and Sarkar into smaller parganas (under Shiqdar and Amin). In the field of central administration, Sher Shah followed the sultanate pattern. There were four main central departments viz Diwan-iwizarat, Diwan-i-arz, Diwan-i-insha and Diwani-rasalat. • Admin: Central -> Provincial ->Sarkars(shiq) -> Pargana -> village. Reforms • Restored the old imperial road from the river Indus to Sonar gaon in Bengal. • We are told that Sher Shah built 1700 Sarais (Rest houses). • He struck fine coins of silver (Rupya) and copper of uniform standard. AKBAR (1556-1605 AD) • Jalaluddin Muhmmad Akbar. • Had been born at Amarkot on 15 oct 1542 when Humayun was in hight from Bikaner. Cordination 1556 AD • When Akbar was at Kalanaur camp aining against Sikandaar sur news was received of Humayun’s death at Delhi after a fall from his library. Nobles raised Akbar to the throne and Bairam khan was appointed Wakil Mutlaq (Regent). Akbar’s conquests and Annexation : • 2ndBattle of Panipat (1556 AD) -> Hemu VS Bairam Khan and Hemu was defeated. • 1561 Malwa - Baz Bahadur • 1564 Garh Katanga – Rani Durgawati • 1568-69 Chittor, Ranthambhor, Kalinger • Acceptance of Mughal suzerainty: Amber, Marwar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer • 1573 Gujarat • 1574-76 Conquest of Bihar and Bengal • 1576 Attempt to conquest Mewar Battle of Haldighati with Rana Pratap. Akbar’s Policy and Reform: 1. Rajput Policy – Growth of a composite ruling class. 2. Religious Policy 3. Land revenue Policy 4. Admin Policy and Reform 5. Theory of Kingship Important Aspects of Akbar’s Rule: • Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s court. • Abolished Jaziya in 1564 and the tax on pilgrims. The use of beef was also forbidden. • Believed in Sul-i-Kul or peace to all. • Built Ibadatkhana (Hall of Prayers) at Fatehpur Sikri. • In 1579 Akbar issued the Decree of Infallibility. • Formulated an order called Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhidi-Ilahi in 1581. • His land revenue system was known as Todar Mal bandobast or Zabti system. • Under the Dahsala system land was classified into four categories viz Polaj, Parvati, Chachar and Banjar. Polaj -> annually cultivated Parvati -> left fallow for short period Chachar -> left fallow for 3 to 4 years Banjar -> uncultivated for 5 years • Also introduced the Mansabdari system to organize the nobility as well as the army. Mansabdar meant halder of a rank. There were two ranks Zat and Sawar. • Zat fixed the status and standing in the administrative hierarchy while sawar fixed the number of troopers held by the Mansabdar. It wasn’t a hereditary system. AKBAR’S NAVRATNAS 1. Abul Fazl –> Wazir of Akbar and author of the Akbar’s reign. 2. Faizi –> Abul Fazl’s brother. He was historian 38 in Akbar’s court. 3. Tansen –> One of the greatest musician. 4. Raja Birbal –> courtier in the administration of Akbar. He was poet and author Akbar also conferred on him the title of “Raja”. 5. Raja Todar Mal –> was Akbar’s finance minister Akbar bestowed on the raja the title Diwan-iAshraf. 6. Raja Man singh –> was the Kacchawaha raja of Amber. He was mansabdar and trusted general of Akbar. 7. Abdul Rahim khan-E-Khana –> was a poet and the son of Akbar’s caretaker, Bairam khan. 8. Faqir Aziao Din –> was one of Akbar’s chief advisors. 9. Mullah Do Piaza –> was among the Mughal Emperor Akbar’s chief advisors. Akbar regarded his advice in high esteem. Highlights of Akbar’s Reign • Abolition of the practice of converting Pows to Islam - 1562. • Abolition of Pilgrimage Tax – 1563 • Abolition of Jajiya – 1564 • Establishment of Ibadat Khana – 1575 • Issue of Mahzar – 1578 • Foundation of Din-i-Ilahi – 1581 • Ban on killing animals on certain day - 1583 JAHANGIR(1605-1627) • Akbar’s eldest surviving son Salim assumed the title of Nur-ud-din-Muhammad Jahangir. • The fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had helped Khusrau, so he was also executed of after 5 days of torture. • Rana Amar singh (son of Maharana Pratap) of Mewar submitted before Jahangir in 1615. Rana’s son Karan singh was made a mansabdar in the Mughal court. • Faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber in his expedition to Ahmednagar. • His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622. • The most important event in Jahangir’s life was his marriage to Mehr-un-Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghani in 1611. The title of Nur Jahan was conferred on her. • She had great influence on Jahangir’s life, as she was given the status of Padshsh Begum, coins were struck in her name and all royal Farmans beared her name. • She got high positions for her father (Itmad-uddaulah), and her brother (Asaf khan). She married Asaf’s daughter, Mumtaz Mahal to Khurram (later Shahjahan). • Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619) visited his court. Due to the efforts of Sir Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat and some other places. • Had a chain of justice outside his palace in Agra (called Zinzir-i-Adil). He also laid a number of gardens, such as the Shalimar and Nishat gardens in Kashmir. • He forbade the killing of animals for food on Thursdays and Fridays. • Died in 1627 at Bhimbar in Kashmir. Body buried in Dilkusha garden of Shahdara. • In his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography) he described his drinking habit. SHAHJAHAN (1628-1658) • Jahangir’s death made the struggle for the throne imminent. Nur Jahan alerted Shahryar to prepare for war. Asaf Khan sent messangers to Khurram, urging him to come to Agra. Asaf Played for time by proclaiming one of Jahangir’s favorites, Khusrau’s son Dawar Baksh, king Shahryar proclaimed himself king but Asaf Khan defeated him. • Shahjahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, as they were abusing their trading privileges. • In 1639, Shahjahan secured Kandahar and immediately fortified it. But Persia wrested Kandhahar from the Mughals in 1649. Shahjahan sent three expeditions to recover Knadahar, but all failed. • Shah Jahan appointed Shahiji Bhonsle into his service. • In 1636 Shah Jahan arrived in Daulatabad. The Ahmadnagar kingdom was unable to resist the Mughal on slaught and lost its independence. • Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with emperor. Khandesh, Berar, Telengana and Daulatabad were made into four Mughal provinces. • The first viceroy, Aurangzeb,controlled all four 39 provinces from 1636 to 1644. In 1652, he was appointed the viceroy of Deccan again. He made Khirki, founded by Malik Ambar, the capital of Mughal Deccan and named it Aurangabad. • The financial bickering between the father and son formed a large part of Aurangzeb’s correspondence known as Adab-i-Alamgiri. • Shah Jahan’s sudden illness in 1657 plunged the empire into a civil war. • Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he was made the prisoner in the Agra Fort, being looked after by his daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in 1666. • His reign is considered the “Golden Age” of the Mughal Empire. • 2 frenchmen, Bernier and Tavernier, and Italian adventurer Monucci , visited during his reign. AURANGZEB ALAMGIR (1658-1707) • At the time of shahjanjan’s illness, Darawas in Delhi and the other brothers were in different places. Shuja in Bengal, Murad in Gujarat and Aurangzeb in Deccan. • Aurangzeb first defeated the imperial army at Dharmat and then defeated a force led by Dara in the Battle of Samugarh. Thereafter, he entered Agra and crowned himself with the title of ‘Alamgir’ (conquer of the world). • Under him the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, and the largest single state ever known in India from the down of history to the rise of British power was formed. • His reign can be broadly divided into two 25 years. Perids: first in the affairs of North India when the Maratha power under Shivaji emerged, and second marked by his preoccupations about the affairs of Deccan. • He caused serious rift in the Mughal Rajput alliance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in 1639 after the death Raja Jaswant singh. • In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur. • In 1679, he reimposed Jaziyah. Also, Zauroj, singing in the court, and the practice of Jharokhadarshah were banned. Also forbade inscription of Kalma (the Muslim credo) on the coins. • When he was conduction the campaign against Marwar, his son Akbar rebelled in 1681. • The Mughal conquests reached the territorial climax during his reign, as Bijapur (1686) and Golcunda (1687) were annexed to the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire stretched from Kashmir in the west to Chittagong in the east. • Patronized the greatest digest of Muslim law in India, Fatwa-i-Alamgiri. • He was called a ‘Darvesh or a ‘Zinda Pir’. • He also forbade Sati. MUGHAL’S PAINTING HUMAYUN • He invited 2 Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad who became his court painters. AKBAR • Organized painting in imperial Karkhanas and also introduced European style. • Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Bhusrau Kuli, Jamshed, Basawan, Daswanth, etc. were the prominent painters. • Daswanth painted the Razm Namah (Persian Mahabharata). JAHANGIR • Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir. • Special progress was made in portrait painting and painting of animals. Bishan Das was master of portraits while Ustad Mansur specialized in animal painting. • Use of ‘Halo’ or Divine Lights started under Jahangir. MUGHAL LITERATURE • Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur’s Tuzuk-iBuburi from Turki to Persian during Akbar’s reign. • Abdul Fazal composed Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnamah. • Abdul Qadir Badauni, who was in Akbar’s court, wrote: Kitab-ul-Tawarikh, Tarikh-Alfi and Muntakhab-ul-Akbari. • Jahangir composed his memoir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (in Persian language), and patronized the valuable dictionary, Farhang-i-Jahangiri. • During Jahangir’s reign Hamid wrote Padshah Namah and Khafi Khan wrote Muntakhab-iLuhab. • Dara Shikoh was a great scholar. He translated Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita. He also wrote Majm-ul-Bahrain, Safi-ul-Auliya, Sainat-ulAuliya, Hasanat-ul-Arifin, and Majma-ulBahrain. • Mirza Md. Qazim wrote Alamgirnama. • Ishwar Das Nagar wrote Fatunat-i-Alamgiri. • Nimat Khan Ali wrote Waqai-i-Hyderabad (conquest of Golconda by Aurangzeb). TAJ MAHAL • Shah Jahan commissioned its construction for his wife Arjuman Bano, better known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1631. It was constructed in 22 years. • Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi are credited with a key role in the architectural design of the complex. • The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan. MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE Babur Humayun Akbar • • • • • • • 40 Mosque at Kabulibagh in Panipat. Mosque at Sambhal in Rohilkhand. Laid the foundation of the city Din Panah of Delhi. Built Jamali Mosque and Mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi. Humayun’s tomb is called prototype of Taj Mahal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum. Built Agra for (in red sandstone). He also built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra. In Fatehpur Sikri are the Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Aam, Jodhabai’s Palace and Sheikh Salim Chishti’s tomb. Buland Darwaza (53m high) is located Agra. • • • Jahangir • • Shahjahan • • • Aurangzeb • LATER MUGHALS/FALL OF THE MUGHALS The empire lost power after Aurangazeb’s rule. His successors were weak and incapable ruler. Bahadur shah (1707-1712) • Assumed the title of Shah Alam I. was also known as Shah-i-Bekhabar. He made peace with Guru Gobind singh and Chhatrasal. • He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shanu. Jahandar Shah (1712-13) • First puppet Mughal emperor • He abolished Jaziya Farrukhsiyar (1713-18) • Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. • He excepected Banda Bahadur. • Furrukhsiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1718. Mohammad Shah (1718-48) • Nadir shah (of Iran) defeated him in the Battle of Karnal. During his tenure, Chin Kilich Khan founded Hyderabad, Murship Quli khan founded and Saddat khan laid down the foundation of Awadh out of realms of Mughal Empire. Alamgir II (1754-59) Shah Alam II (1759-1806) 41 Built his own tomb at Sikandra, near Agra. Built the temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan. With Jahangir’s reign, the practice of putting up buildings in marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones started. This method of decoration was known as Pieta durra. Nurjahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula at Agra. Jahangir built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own Mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore). Built Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid at Agra, Jama Masjid and Red Fort at Delhi, Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad. Also built Bussaman Burz at Agra (where he spent his last years in captivity), Sheesh Mahal etc. He got the peacock throne built by Bebadal Khan on which Amir Khusrau’s couplet – ‘It there is a paradise on earth, it is here, are inscribed. Built Moti Masjid at Delhi and Badshahi Mosque at Lahore. • Shah Alam II joined hand with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Suja-ud-Daula of Awadh in the Battle of Buxar againt the Brithish in 1764. They were defeated. Akbar II (1806-37) • He gave Rammohan the title “Raja”. • He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to London to seek a raise in his allowance. Bahadur Shah II (1837-57) • He was confined by British to the Red fort, during the revolt of 1857; he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebels. He was deported to Rangoon after that. MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION • The entire kingdom was divided into Suba or Pranta, Suba into Sarkar, Sarkar into Pargana and the Pargana into villages. • Babur and Humayun had a Prime Minister known as Vakil. The office of Vakil, was however, discontinued after Bairam Khan. • Wazir was the Prime Minister. • Diwan was the head of the revenue department. • Mir Bakshi: Military Department. • Jhan-i-Saman: Royal house-hold. • Qazi-ul-qazat: Judicial Department. The Qazis were helped by the Muftis. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Sadr-us-Sadr: Charitable and religious endowments. Mustaufi: Auditor-General Amil: Judicial officer in civil and judicial disputes. Quanungo: Head accountant. Lambardar: Village headman. Patwari: Village accountant. During Akbar’s reign the empore was divided into Khalisa (crown lands), Jagirs (land granted to nobles) and inam (Land granted to religious and learned men). THE MARATHAS Rose to prominence under Shivaji. He was born to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai n 1627 at fortress of Shivner in Poona. Shahji was a military officer in the state of Bijapur and he owned the territory of Poona as a Jagir. He was highly impressed by his mother, Dadaji Kondadeo (his guardian), Guru Ramdas Samarth and Tuka Ram, both Bhakti Saints. From 1656 he started capturing many forts from the local officers of Bijapur. Ali Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal khan to teach Shivaji a lesson in 1659. But Shivaji killed him in a meeting with his tiger claws. Ultimately, in 1662 the Sultan of Bijapur made peace with shivaji and acknowledge him as an independent ruler of his conquered territories. Aurangazeb got worried by Shivaji’s extensive conquests. He sent Shaishta Khan (Viceroy of Mughal Deccan) to kill him. Here again, in a daring manner, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s camp in night, injuring him. Then Aurangazeb send Raja Jai Singh (of Amber) who forced him to sign the Treaty of Purnadar in 1665. Under the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 of his major fort out of the total 35 forts. Shivaji also agreed to help the Mughals in their attack of Bijapur. Shivaji visited Agra with his son Sambhaji in 1666. There he was put on a house arrest. But he escaped from there, concealing in a basket of sweets. He very soon conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals. 42 • • • • • • • • • He defeated a Mughal force in the Battle of Salherin 1672. He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and assumed the titles of Chhatrapati he became the sovereign ruler of Maharashtra. Unfortunately, Shivaji didn’t live long he died 1680 at the age of 53. MARATHAS AFTER SHIVAJI After Shivaji, his son Sambhaji (1680-9) succeeded throne (although a lot many supported his stepbrother, Rajaram). He was a man of loose character and spent all his time in merry-making. When Aurangzeb was busy in his campaigns against Bijapur and Golconda, he and his followers did not take full advantage of the opportunity. When Sambhaji gave shelter to Aurangzeb’s rebel son, Akbar, he was executed and his infant son, Shivaji II, better known as Shahu, was taken captive by Aurnagazeb. Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram in 1689. Rajaram also lacked the qualities of his father. He was hardly ten when his father died and he was kept a prisoner by his brother Sambhaji. The result was that he failed to get the education which was necessary for his status. However, he was fortunate in having brilliant advisors and helpers. Initially, he was successful against the Mughals. But he was killed 1700 when Aurangzeb himself conducted an expedition against him. After Raja Ram’s death, his widow Tarabi put her infant son, shivaji III on the throne. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Shahu was released by Aurangzeb’s successor, Bahadur Shah I now he claimed the government. His release led to the Maratha civil war between Shahu and Tarabai. In the Civil war Shahu emerged victorious (Battle of Khed) with the help of Balaji Vishwanath, the founder of the live of Peshwas. After the battle, Tarabai retired to Kolhapur with her son. In the reign of Shahu, the Peshwas or Prime Minister, Balaji Vishwanath, virtually became the ruler of the state. From now onward sbegan the rule of the Peshwas who had their seat of Powar at Poona. (Shahu’s capital was Satara). In all, there were seven Peshwas, namely: Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20) • • • • • • • Balaji Baji Rao I (1720-40) Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) Madho Rao (1761-72) Narayana Rao (1772-73) Madho Rao Narayana (1773-95) Baji Rao II (1795-1818) Of these seven Peshwas, the ablest was Baji Rao I and the weakest and most incompetent was Baji Rao II. • Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802 with the British, which gave the British effective control of not only the Maratha region but also of the Deccan and western India. • Under Peshwas, Maratha kingdom transformed into an empire based on the principle of confederacy, in which prominent Maratha chiefs were assigned a territory as their ‘sphere of influence’, which they were supposed to conquer on their own and which they can administer autonomously. • Consequently, several Maratha families became prominent in different parts of India: • Gaekwad in Baroda, Bhonsle at Nagur, Holkar at Indore, Scindia at Gwalior, Peshwa at Poona. MARATHA ADMINISTRATION • Besides the land revenue, Chauth or 1/4th land revenue was the main revenue. • Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire. • Shivaji was helped by 8 ministers of Ashta Pradhana. 1. Peshwa or Mukhya Prahdan (Prime Minister). 2. Majumdar or Amatya (Finance Minister) 3. Mantri or Waquinavis (Personal safety of royal secretariat). 4. Sachiva or surunovis (Incharge of Royal Secretariat) • • • • • • • • • • • 43 5. Samant or Dabir (Foreign Minister). 6. Senapati (Commander in chief). 7. Pandit Rao (Chief Religious Advisor). 8. Nyayadnish (Administration of Justice). With the exception of Nyayadnish and Pandit Rao,all other ministers were required to command armies and lead expeditions. Later, Rajaram created a new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total ministers to nine. MYSORE In the second half of the 18th century, the rise of Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan and their alliance with the French was seen as a danger to the British Power in India. Mysore emerged as a powerful throne under Haider Ali who became the king in 1761. He used western military training to strengthen his army. In the I Anglo-Mysore war (1767-1769), Haider Ali faced the Triple Alliance of English, the Nizam and the Marathas. As Haider Ali was a great diplomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over the Nizam and thus broke the alliance. The war was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty of Madras 1769. Hyder Ali died in 1782 during the II Anglo-Mysore war. His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war till 1784 when the two sides concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Mangalore. Tipu planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatnam. He employed French officers to train his army and showed a keen interest in French revolution and became a member of the Jacobin Club. He assumed the title of PADSHAH in 1797. In the III Anglo-Mysore war (1789-1792) he was defeated by the triple alliance of British, Nizam and the Marathas and had to sign the Treaty of Srirangapatnam. By this treaty, Tipu ceded half of his territory to the English and paid a large Amount as war indemnity. He was defeated and killed in the IV AngloMysore war by Lord Wellesley (1799).