Early Childhood - Body and Mind Answers Part 9

267 Discuss how growth rate affects the eating habits of preschool children, and examine the most common nutritional problems of preschoolers. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Since children grow more slowly between the ages of 2 and 6 than they did in the first two years of life, their appetites are smaller. The most common nutritional problems of preschoolers are insufficient intake of iron, zinc, and calcium, all of which can be avoided with a proper diet. Another nutritional problem is the overconsumption of sweets, which results in excess weight and tooth decay. 268 Monique wants to help her 3-year-old son develop healthy eating habits. Advise her about what to expect in her son's eating behavior and how her mealtime routines can affect that behavior. What actions could Monique take to create peaceful mealtimes? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Monique's son's appetite will most likely decrease from when he was younger. Her child may develop rigid, ritualistic behaviors regarding food, such as only accepting a certain few foods and eating foods in a certain sequence and manner. Monique should understand the just- right rules children often impose on eating habits and try to accommodate to them rather than resist them. 269 Discuss the role of the corpus callosum in children's brain development. What is it, what does it do, and what happens if it does not develop correctly? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: The corpus callosum is a band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. It is essential to the communication between the two sides of the brain, which results in children being able to coordinate both sides of their bodies. If the corpus callosum does not develop correctly, serious disorders, including autism, could result. 270 Analyze the roles of the prefrontal cortex and limbic system in the early childhood. What are their functions? How do they differ? What changes occur in a child's behavior as a result of a maturing limbic system and prefrontal cortex? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: The prefrontal cortex is the executive of the brain, essential to planning, analyzing, and complex thought. The limbic system controls the expression and regulation of emotions and processes memory. As the prefrontal cortex matures, the ability to plan increases and impulsiveness decreases. As the limbic system matures, memory improves while nightmares and irrational fears decrease. 271 Explain the process and function of myelination in the nervous system. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Myelination of the axons increases the speed of signals between neurons. It allows young children to think and react much more quickly than toddlers can. It is helpful in recognition tasks and invaluable in processing several thoughts in succession. Myelination is also important in controlling impulses and reducing perseveration. 272 Explain the concept of animism. Give examples of how children demonstrate this concept. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Animism is the belief that inanimate, or nonhuman, objects or animals have human characteristics such as being alive. Answers will vary but should illustrate this concept. For example, a child may believe that a doll has emotions, or that her pet cat thinks like she does, or that the chair she stubbed her toe on did it to her on purpose. 273 Explain the difference between Piaget's concept of egocentrism and the concept of egocentrism as it is used in common language. Give an example of each of the two different usages. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Egocentrism in Piagetian terminology means that young children assume that everyone else experiences and perceives the world exactly as they do. Examples will vary but should illustrate this concept. In common usage, the word egocentrism is synonymous with being self-centered or concerned only with oneself. Again, examples will vary but should illustrate this concept. 274 What is conservation? Describe an example of a conservation task, noting the initial presentation of material, the transformation of the material, and the questions that children are asked. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Conservation is the concept that the number or amount of something is the same regardless of changes in appearance. Students can describe any of the conservation tasks, but should mention the initial presentation, the transformation that the child watches, and the question asked. 275 Francesca is frustrated trying to learn to tie her shoelaces. According to Vygotsky, should the parents get involved, or should they let her try to master this task on her own? If they decide to get involved, what should her parents do? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Vygotsky would say that the parents definitely should get involved. The parents can offer assistance by providing direct instruction, encouraging the child to try to do it, interacting with Francesca, gradually letting her do it more on her own, using directive comments, and helping her to see her progress. The example should include ways in which a parent could assist a child in learning a new task. 276 Explain what theory of mind is; indicate at what age it generally begins to develop; and discuss factors that affect its development. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Theory of mind is a person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization is seldom possible before age 4. Theory of mind also includes the realization that thoughts may not reflect reality. The development of theory of mind is partly dependent on age-related maturation of the prefrontal cortex. 277 What is the current consensus about whether early childhood is a critical or a sensitive period for language learning? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Scientists once thought that early childhood was a critical period for language learning, meaning that it was the only time a first language could be mastered. However, researchers now believe that early childhood is a sensitive period for language acquisition—the best time for rapidly and easily mastering vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation but certainly not the only time that these skills can be mastered. 278 Explain and discuss the process of fast-mapping and the related idea of logical extension. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Fast-mapping refers to the phenomenon by which young children develop an interconnected set of categories for words, a kind of mental map, which makes speedy vocabulary acquisition possible. Fast-mapping speeds the development of learning new words because children immediately assign a new word to one of the categories in their mental language grid. Their understanding of the new word is not always precise, but they refine their understanding through use and experience. Logical extension refers to a child applying a newly learned word to another related object. (The example in the text is a young girl referring to a black-and-white cow as a Dalmatian cow after recently learning what a Dalmatian dog is.) Both terms refer to a child's experience of a terrific surge of perceptual interrelationships between words. 279 Discuss the concept of language shift in bilingualism. What is it? How do young children exhibit it? How does their cognitive development contribute to it? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Language shift in bilingualism refers to the tendency of children to become more fluent in their new language than in their home language. Some children exhibit a language shift by refusing to speak their home language, thus shifting to the new language. Since young children are egocentric, they center on immediate appearances and their own point of view; because parents often let their children know that they want them to learn the new language, the children respond by focusing on the new language to the exclusion of the home language. 280 You have been hired as an educational consultant to the president of the United States. What policy would you recommend to the federal government concerning preschool education? What children should be targeted? How much government involvement should there be? Who will bear the cost of these programs? Be sure to take into consideration the research presented in this chapter and the biosocial, cognitive, and psychosocial needs of preschool children. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Answers will vary, as this question allows a wide range of creativity in the answer. Students should include consideration of the needs of a wide range of families, the needs of preschool children, and the needs of society as a whole, and should use relevant information to support their assertions. 281 Discuss the major theoretical differences between child-centered and teacher-directed earlychildhood education programs. What theories underlie child-centered programs? What theories underlie teacher-directed programs? What does each type of program emphasize in its work with young children? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Child-centered programs tend to reflect the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Montessori, and the Reggio Emilia approach, stressing play and individual interest as impetus for learning. Teacher-directed programs tend to be more behavioral in their approach, structured on a basis of reward and punishment, and focused on school readiness. 282 Intensive early childhood programs have been implemented in the United States, resulting in long-term benefits. Explain the justification for starting such a program, giving examples of ways in which specific groups have benefited from early intervention. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Early intervention has been shown to make a difference if the intervention is of high quality and staffed with effective teachers. This evidence comes from three specific programs that enrolled children full time for years, sometimes beginning with home visits in infancy, sometimes continuing in after-school programs through first grade. Early education's substantial long-term benefits become most apparent when the children are in the third grade or older. Children in these three programs scored higher on math and reading achievement tests at age 10 than did other children from the same backgrounds, schools, and neighborhoods. They were also less likely to be placed in special classes for slow or disruptive children or to repeat a year of school than their peers. In adolescence, the children who had undergone intensive preschool education had higher career aspirations, possessed a greater sense of achievement, and were less likely to have been abused. As young adults, they were more likely to attend college and less likely to go to jail, more often paying taxes rather than being on welfare. 283 Why do some young children get too fat? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Children tend to be less active today than they were in previous generations, yet parents still worry that they are not eating enough and thus encourage overeating. Overnutrition is now a major problem in many parts of the world. 284 Should left-handed toddlers become right-handed adults? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Developmentalists do not think so. Trying to train a child to switch this characteristic can cause conflict and confusion, and may inhibit some of the benefits–including what may be an advantage in creativity from being born a “leftie.” 285 How should adults answer when children ask, “Why?” Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: From a child's egocentric perspective, “Why?” actually means, “How does this relate to me?” Adults should remember that most of the time children aren't seeking detailed, scientific answers but rather are just looking for more information on the topic of discussion. 286 Does it confuse young children if they hear two or more languages? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Not young bilingual children. Neuroscience demonstrates that they manage to keep the both languages separate, even though they use the same area of their brain to learn both languages. 287 What do children learn in preschool? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: What children learn in preschool varies by the type of program. Child-centered preschool programs tend to encourage artistic expression and self-paced exploration of topics of interest to the young children themselves. Teacher-directed programs tend to focus on learning the alphabet, numbers, colors, and shapes, as well as basic skills. 288 How are growth rates, body proportions, and motor skills related during early childhood? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: During early childhood, children slim down as their legs and arms lengthen and their fat turns to muscle. The average body mass index is lower at ages 5 and 6 than at any other time of life. The center of gravity moves from the breast to the belly, enabling cartwheels, somersaults, and many other motor skills. Increases in weight and height accompany this growth. Over each year of early childhood, well-nourished children gain about pounds and grow almost 3 inches in height. 289 Why might lower-income children be more vulnerable to nutritional problems? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Two- to six-year-olds may be at greater nutritional risk than children of any other age because they eat too many or too much of the wrong foods. Over the centuries, families encouraged eating, protecting children against famine. In the poorest nations, infant and early-childhood malnutrition contributes to one-third of all child deaths (UNICEF, 2012) and slows growth, including growth of the brain. 290 What factors help children develop their motor skills? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: The development of both gross and fine motor skills depends on brain maturation and practice. 291 Why do public health workers prefer to speak of “injury control” rather than “accident prevention”? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Public health workers believe that minor injuries–accidents–are inevitable during a normal, active childhood and know that they cannot be completed prevented; however, they also stress that practices aimed at anticipating, controlling, and/or preventing dangerous activities can make most injuries less harmful. 292 What are the differences among the three levels of harm reduction? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Primary prevention occurs in the macrosystem to make harm less likely, reducing the risk of sickness, injury, or death for everyone of any age. Secondary prevention is more specific, averting harm in high-risk situations or for vulnerable individuals. Tertiary prevention begins after harm has occurred, limiting the damage. 293 What changes in the brain's functioning are evident between ages 2 and 6? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Between ages 2 and 6, neurological increases are especially notable in the areas of the cortex, where planning, thinking, social awareness, and language occur. 294 Why is myelination important for thinking and motor skills? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Myelin is a fatty coating on the axons that speeds signals between neurons. Speed of transmission from one neuron to another becomes pivotal when several thoughts and actions must occur in rapid succession. 295 How does the prefrontal cortex affect impulsivity and perseveration? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: A balance of activation and inhibition is needed for thoughtful adults, who neither leap too quickly nor hesitate too long. Many young children have not yet found the balance. They are impulsive, flitting from one activity to another. Others persevere, or stick to, one thought or action, engaging in perseveration. Impulsiveness and perseveration are opposite manifestations of a prefrontal cortex that is too immature to check activation or halt inhibition. 296 What is the function of the corpus callosum? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: The corpus callosum is a long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right sides of the brain. Growth of the corpus callosum makes communication between hemispheres more efficient, allowing children to coordinate the two sides of the brain or body. 297 Why might left-handed children have thicker corpus callosa than right-handed children? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Left-handed children may have thicker corpus callosa because they need to vary the interaction between the two sides of their bodies, depending on the task. 298 What role do the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus play in the expression and regulation of emotions? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: The amygdala registers emotions, both positive and negative, especially fear. The hippocampus is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations. The hippocampus responds to the anxieties of the amygdala by summoning memory. The hypothalamus responds to signals from the amygdala and from the hippocampus by producing cortisol and other hormones that activate parts of the brain and body. 299 In what way does symbolic thought advance cognition? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: In symbolic thought, an object or word can stand for something else, including something pretend or something not seen. Symbolic thought allows for the language explosion, when children can talk about thoughts and memories. 300 What barriers to logic exist at the preoperational stage? How might these affect children's thinking? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Piaget described four limitations that make logic difficult until about age 6: centration, focus on appearance, static reasoning, and irreversibility. Centration is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of all others. A second limitation of preoperational thought is a focus on appearance to the exclusion of other attributes. Third, preoperational children use static reasoning, believing that the world is unchanging, always in the state in which they currently encounter it. The fourth limitation of preoperational thought is irreversibility. Preoperational thinkers fail to recognize that reversing a process sometimes restores whatever existed before. 301 According to Vygotsky, what should parents and other caregivers do to encourage children's learning? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Parents and other caregivers should present challenges, offer assistance (without taking over) in completing a task, add crucial information, and encourage motivation. 302 How does scaffolding increase a child's zone of proximal development? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Good mentors provide plenty of scaffolding, or temporary sensitive support, to help children advance within their developmental zone. For example, good mentors encourage children to look both ways before crossing the street (while holding the child's hand) or let them stir the cake batter (perhaps while covering the child's hand on the spoon handle in guided participation). 303 What does the idea of theory-theory suggest about how children think? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Theory-theory refers to the idea that children naturally construct theories to explain whatever they see and hear. According to theory-theory, the best explanation for cognition is that humans seek reasons, causes, and underlying principles to make sense of their experience. 304 What factors spur the development of theory of mind? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: The development of theory of mind correlates with a maturing of the prefrontal cortex. Other contributing factors include language development, the presence of an older sibling, and culture and context. 305 In what ways do theory-theory and theory of mind help explain why older children lie with greater skill than younger children do? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: As children develop theory of mind, it occurs to them for the first time that people can be deliberately deceived. Theory-theory suggests that children understand intention. 306 What is the evidence that early childhood is a sensitive time for learning language? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: While scientists once thought there was a critical period for language learning, that theory has been disproved, as many people learn languages after age 6. Language learning is an example of dynamic systems, in that every part of the developmental process influences every other part. To be specific, there are “multiple sensitive periods . . . auditory, phonological, semantic, syntactic, and motor systems, along with the developmental interactions among these components” (Thomas & Johnson, 2008, p. 2). All of these facilitate language learning. 307 How does fast-mapping aid the language explosion? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Children develop an interconnected set of categories for words, a kind of grid or mental map, which makes speedy vocabulary acquisition, or fast-mapping, possible. Rather than figuring out the exact definition after hearing a word used in several contexts, children hear a word once and quickly stick it into a category in their mental language grid. 308 Explain how code-focused teaching, book reading, parent education, language enhancement, and preschool programs each contribute to children's literacy. Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: A) Code-focused teaching: In order for children to learn to read, they must “break the code” from spoken to written word; B) Book reading: Vocabulary as well as familiarity with pages and print increase when adults read to children, allowing questions and conversation. C) Parent education: When teachers and other professionals show parents how to stimulate cognition (as in the book reading of the previous item), children become better readers. D) Language enhancement: Within each child's zone of proximal development, mentors can expand vocabulary and grammar based on what the child knows and experiences. E) Preschool programs: Children learn from teachers, songs, excursions, and other children. 309 How does overregulation signify a cognitive advance? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Sometimes children apply the rules of grammar when they should not, an error called overregularization. This is actually evidence of increasing knowledge: Many children first say words correctly (feet, teeth, mice), repeating what they have heard. Later, when they grasp the grammar and try to apply it, they overregularize, assuming that all constructions are regular. 310 Why is early childhood the best time to learn a second (or third) language? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Neuroscience finds that young bilingual children site both languages in the same areas of their brains yet manage to keep them separate. This separation allows them to activate one language and temporarily inhibit the other, experiencing no confusion when they speak to a monolingual person. 311 In child-centered programs, what do the teachers do? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: Child-centered programs stress each child's development and growth. Teachers in such programs assist children in exploring their own interests rather than providing authoritative direction. 312 Why are Montessori schools still functioning, 100 years after the first such schools opened? Answer Point Value: 1.0 points Model Short Answer: The Montessori philosophy seems to work. A study of 5-year-old children in inner-city Milwaukee who were chosen by lottery to attend Montessori programs found that the children were advanced in prereading (such as recognizing letters), math, and theory of mind, compared with their peers in other schools (Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006). The probable explanation: Their Montessori tasks seem to bolster self-confidence, curiosity, and exploration, all of which transferred to more academic tasks.