Anatomy and Physiology Exam 2 Assignment

A&P Exam 2 Study Guide: 1. Integumentary system a. The integument is made up of 2 parts: i. 1. Cutaneous membrane (skin) ii. 2. Accessory structures iii. The largest organ in the body iv. 16% of body weight 2. cutaneous membrane a. Outer epidermis: superficial epithelium (epithelial tissues) b. Inner demis: Connective tissues 3. subcutaneous layer a. Subcutaneous layer (superficial fascia or hypodermis): loose connective tissue, below the dermis, location of hypodermic injections 4. skin functions a. Protects  underlying tissues and organs b. Excrete s salts, water, and organic wastes (glands) c. Maintains  body temperature (insulation and evaporation) d. Synthesizes vitamin D3 e. Stores lipids f. Detects  touch, pressure, pain, and temperature 5. epidermis layers – 5 in detail- avascular, thin skin 4 layers over most of the body with hair, thick skin 5 layers with no hair on palms and soles - From basal lamina to free surface: - Stratum germinativum (basale) - Stratum spinosum - Stratum granulosum - Stratum lucidum - Stratum corneum Stratum Germinativum (basale): - The “germinative layer”: - Has many germinative (stem) cells or basal cells - Is attached to basal lamina by hemidesmosomes - Forms a strong bond between epidermis and dermis - Structures of Stratum Germinativum - Epidermal ridges (ex. fingerprints) - Dermal papillae (tiny mounds): - Increase the area of basal lamina - Strengthen attachment between epidermis and dermis - Fingerprint ridges - Cells of Stratum Germinativum - Merkel cells: - Found in hairless skin - - Respond to touch (trigger nervous system) Melanocytes: - Contain the pigment melanin - Scattered throughout stratum germinativum Stratum Spinosum - The “spiny layer”: - Produced by division of stratum germinosum - 8-10 layers of keratinocytes bound by desmosomes - Cells shrink until cytoskeletons stick out (spiny) - Cells of Stratum Spinosum - Continue to divide, increasing thickness of epithelium - Contain Langerhans cells, active in immune response Stratum Granulosum - The “grainy layer” - Stops dividing, starts producing: - Keratin - A tough, fibrous protein - Makes up hair and nails - Keratohyalin - Dense granules - Cross-link keratin fibers - Cells of stratum granulosum - Produce protein fibers - Dehydrate and die - Create tightly interlocked layer of keratin surrounded Stratum Lucidum - The “clear layer”: - Found only in thick skin - Covers stratum granulosum - Cells of Stratum Lucida - Flat - Dense - Filled with Keratin Stratum Corneum - The “horn layer”: - Exposed surface of skin - 15 to 30 layers of keratinized cells - Water resistant - Shed and replaced every 2 weeks Keratinization: - The formation of a layer of dead, protective cells filled with keratin - Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except eyes Skin Life Cycle - It takes 15-30 days for a cell to move from stratum germinosum to stratum corneum 6. Keratinocytes a. Contain large amounts of keratin b. The most abundant cells in the epidermis c. Provides hardness and water protection 7. Keratinization a. The formation of a layer of dead, protective cells filled with keratin b. Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except eyes 8. Perspiration a. Insensible perspiration: i. Interstitial fluid lost by evaporation through the stratum corneum b. Sensible perspiration: i. Water excreted by sweat glands 9. Dehydration a. Dehydration results: i. From damage to stratum corneum, ex, burns and blisters (insensible perspiration) ii. From immersion in hypertonic solution, ex, seawater (osmosis) 10. skin colorations a. Skin color depends on: i. Blood circulation (red cells) ii. The pigments carotene and melanin iii. How active the the melanocytes are 11. Pigments a. Melanin i. Yellow-brown or black pigment ii. Produced by melanocytes in stratum germinativum iii. Stored in transport vesicles (melanosomes) iv. Transferred to Keratinocytes b. Carotene i. Orange-yellow pigment ii. Found in orange veggies iii. Accumulates in epidermal cells and fatty tissues of the dermis iv. Can be converted to vitamin A 12. Melanocytes a. Melanin protects skin from sun damage b. Skin color depends on how active the melanin cells are c. Octopus shaped cell 13. UV radiation a. Causes DNA mutations and burns which lead to cancer and wrinkles 14. vitamin D a. Epidermal cells produce cholecalciferol (vitamin D3): 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. i. In the presence of UV radiation b. Liver and kidneys convert vitamin D into calcitriol: i. To aid absorption of calcium and phosphorus c. Insufficient vitamin D: i. Can cause rickets d. Helps block uv radiation Dermis a. The Demis i. Located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer ii. Anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sweat glands) b. Has 2 components: i. Outer papillary layer ii. Deep reticular layer reticular layer a. The Reticular Layer (inner) i. Consists of dense irregular connective tissue ii. Contains larger blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerve fibers iii. Contains collagen and elastic fibers iv. Contains connective tissue proper papillary layer a. The Papillary Layer (outer) i. Consists of areolar tissue ii. Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatics, and sensory neurons iii. Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges lines of cleavage a. Collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis: i. Are arranged in parallel bundles ii. Resist force in a specific direction b. Lines of cleavage establish important patterns: i. A parallel cut remains shut, heals well ii. A cut across (right angle) pulls open and scars dermal circulation a. Arteries i. Cutaneous plexus: 1. A network of arteries along the reticular layer ii. Papillary plexus: 1. Capillary network from small arteries in papillary layer b. Veins i. Venous plexus: 1. Capillary return deep to the papillary plexus ii. Contusion: 1. Damage to blood vessles resulting in “black and blue” bruising Hypodermis a. The subcutaneous layer or hypodermis: 1. Lies below the integument 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Stabilizes the skin Allows separate movement made of elastic areolar and adipose tissues Connected to the reticular layer of integument by connective tissue fibers Has few capillaries and no vital organs Is the site of subcutaneous injections using hypodermic needles 21. hemangiomas - capillary malformation (buildup) - angel's kiss - located on the forehead and eyelids, usually disappear by age of 2 - stork bite - marks on the back of the neck, which may last into adulthood. - infantile hemangioma - most common birthmark- become visible within the first 2 weeks of life, continue to grow til 6 to 9 months. Then, gradually lose red color. past, called strawberry hemangiomas - Capillary malformation - "port-wine stain," or "nevus flammeus," is a flat, pink, red, or purple mark that appears at birth, face, arm, or leg, and continues to grow as the child grows. 22. Moles - Nervus (mole) 23. adipose tissue a. Deposits of subcutaneous fat: i. Have distribution pattern determined by hormones ii. Are reduced by cosmetic liposuction 24. Hair - Dead packaged keratin a. Functions i. Protects and insulates ii. guards openings iii. sensitive to light touch b. exocrine glands i. Sebaceous glands 1. Simple branched alveolar glands c. Location- covers body except palms, soles, lips, external genital d. Structuresi. Follicles 1. located deep in the dermis 2. produces nonliving hairs 3. wrapped in a dense connective-tissue sheath 4. base is surrounded by sensory nerves 5. Internal root sheath- inner layer that contacts cuticle in the lower hair root 6. External root sheath- extends from the skin surface to hair matrix 7. Glassy membrane- dense connective tissue sheath that contacts connective tissues of dermis ii. Arrector pili 1. involuntary smooth muscle 2. Causes hairs to stand up 3. Produces “goose bumps” iii. Sebaceous glands 1. Lubricates the hair 2. Control bacteria iv. Hair root 1. lower part of the hair 2. Attaches to the integument v. Hair shaft 1. Upper part of the hair 2. Not attached to the integument vi. Hair bulb 1. Produces the hair matrix e. Growth- begins deep in the dermis i. Hair papilla contains capillaries and nerves ii. Hair bulb produces the hair matrix iii. Follicle becomes active iv. Produces new hair v. Club hair is shed vi. Club hair is not growing and attaches to inactive follicle vii. Growing hair is firmly attached to matrix f. Matrix i. Layer of dividing basal cells ii. Produce hair structures iii. Push hair up and out of the skin g. Layers i. Medula- the central core ii. Cortex- middle layer iii. Cuticle- surface layer h. Types i. Lanugo- fetal hair follicles ii. Vellus- soft fine and covers body surface iii. Terminal- heavy pigmented on head, eyebrows and genitalia after puberty, longer and course i. Color i. Produced by melanocytes at the papilla moved into the matrix ii. Determined by genes 25. Exocrine Glands a. Sebaceous glands ( oil glands) i. Simple branched alveolar glands associated with hair follicles ii. Sebaceous follicles discharge directly onto skin surface iii. Holocrine glands iv. Secrete sebum 1. Contains lipids 2. Lubricates and protects the epidermis 3. Inhibits bacteria b. Sweat glands i. Apocrine 1. Found in armpits, around nipples and groin 2. Associated with hair follicles 3. Produce sticky, cloudy secretions 4. Break down and cause odors ii. Merocrine glands 1. Widely distributed on body surface especially on palms and soles 2. Cools skin, flushes microorganisms and harmful chemicals from skin c. Mammary glands i. Produce milk d. Ceruminous glands i. Protect eardrum ii. Produce cerumen (ear wax) 26. Nail structures a. Nail protects fingers and toes i. Made of dead cells packed with keratin ii. Metabolic disorders can change nail structure iii. Produced in a deep epidermal fold near the bone called the nail root b. Nail body: i. The visible portion of the nail ii. Covers the nail bed c. Lunula i. The pale crescent at the base of the nail 27. Burns a. Damage due to heat, electricity, radiation or chemicals b. Catastrophic loss of body fluids i. Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance c. Rule of nine- how burns are quickly calculated d. Classification i. 1st degree - epidermis is damaged ii. 2nd degree - epi and upper dermis iii. 3rd degree - entire thickness of skin 28. skeletal system & functions - Skeletal system includes: - Bones of the skeleton (206) - Cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues Functions of the Skeletal System 1. Support 2. Storage of minerals (calcium) 3. Storage of lipids (yellow marrow) 4. Blood cell production (red marrow) 5. Protection (skull, rib cage) 6. Leverage (force of motion) 29. bone shapes - 6 a. Long bones i. Are long and thin ii. Are found in arms, legs, hands, feet, fingers, and toes iii. Diaphysis- the shaft 1. Heavy wall of compact bone or dense bone 2. Central space called marrow cavity iv. Epiphysis- wide part at each end and articulation with other bones 1. Mostly spongy (cancellous) bones 2. Covered with compact bone (cortex) v. Metaphysis 1. Where diaphysis and epiphysis meet b. Flat Bones i. Are thin with parallel surfaces ii. Are found in the skull, sternum, ribs and scapula iii. Resembles a sandwich of spongy bone iv. Between 2 layers of compact bone c. Sutural bones i. Small, irregular bones ii. Found between the flat bones of the skull d. Irregular bones i. Complex shape ii. Examples: 1. Spinal vertebrae 2. Pelvic bones e. Short bones i. Small and thick ii. Examples: 1. Ankle 2. Wrist bones f. Sesamoid bones i. Small and flat ii. Develop inside tendons near joints of knees, hands and feet (Patella) 30. bone markings a. Depressions or grooves along bone surface b. Projections where tendons and ligaments attach and at articulations with other bones c. Tunnels where blood and nerves enter bone 31. bone cells – 4 a. Osteocytes i. Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix ii. Live in Lacunae iii. Are between layers (lamellae) of matrix iv. Connect by cytoplasmic extensions through canaliculi (little tiny tubes) in lamellae v. Do not divide vi. Functions 1. maintains protein and mineral content of matrix 2. Helps repair damaged bone b. Osteoblasts i. Immature bone cells that secrete matrix compounds (osteogenesis) ii. Osteoid - Matrix produced by osteoblasts, but not yet calcified to form bone  iii. Osteoblasts surrounded by bone become osteocytes c. Osteoclasts i. Secrete acids and protein-digesting enzymes ii. Giant, multinucleate cells iii. Dissolve bone matrix and release stored minerals (osteolysis) iv. Are derived from stem cells that produce macrophages d. Osteoprogenitor cells i. Mesenchymal stem cells that divide to produce osteoblasts ii. Are located in inner, cellular layer of periosteum (endosteum) iii. Assist in fracture repair 32. compact bone a. Need to figure out what he wants here. Ask in meeting on Tues 33. Osteon a. The basic unit of mature compact bone b. “Each one of the ring structures” 34. Canals a. Central canals contain blood vessels i. Perforating canals 1. Perpendicular to the central canal 2. Carry blood vessels into bone and marrow 35. Lamelle a. Wrapped around the long bone b. Binds osteons together 36. Periosteum - “outside compact bone membrane” a. Covers all bones except parts enclosed in joint capsules b. It is made up of an outer, fibrous layer and an inner, cellular layer i. Functions: 1. Isolate bone from surrounding tissues 2. Provide a route for circulatory and nervous supply 3. Participate in bone growth 37. Endosteum - “inside of compact bone membrane” a. An incomplete cellular layer i. Lines the marrow cavity ii. Covers trabeculae of spongy bone 38. 39. 40. 41. iii. Lines central canals b. Contains osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells, and osteoclasts c. Is active in bone growth and repair spongy bone - “still a compact bone” a. Does not have osteons b. The matrix forms an open network of trabeculae “unit of spongy bones” c. Trabeculae have no blood vessels d. The space between trabeculae is filled with red marrow bone development a. Growth until about 25 b. Osteogenesis- bone formation c. Ossification: i. the process of replacing tissues with bone ii. Calcification is the process of deposition calcium salts d. Intramembranous ossification: occurs in the dermis and produces dermal bones such as mandible and clavicle i. 3 Steps: 1. Mesenchymal Stem cells aggregate, differentiate into osteoblasts, begin ossification at ossification center, develop spicules 2. Blood vessels grow into the area to supply the osteoblasts and spicules connect trapping blood vessels inside bone 3. Spongy bone develops and is remodeled into osteons of compact bone e. Endochondral ossification: bone over a hyaline cartilage i. Ossifies bones that originated as hyaline cartilage (most bones originate as hyaline cartilage) ii. Long bones 1. Chondrocytes in the center of hyaline cartilage: a. Enlarge, form struts and calcify, and die, leaving cavities in cartilage 2. Blood vessels grow around the edges of the cartilage and cells in the perichondrium change to osteoblasts: a. Produce layer of superficial bone around shaft which continues to grow and become compact bone 3. Blood vessels enter the cartilage bringing fibroblasts that become osteoblasts and spongy bone develops at the primary ossification center 4. Remodeling creates a marrow cavity: a. Bone replaces cartilage at the metaphyses  5. Capillaries and osteoblasts enter the epiphyses creating secondary  ossification centers 6. Epiphyses fill with spongy bone: a. Cartilage within the joint cavity is articulation cartilage b. Cartilage at the metaphysis is epiphyseal cartilage epiphyseal lines a. Growth plate b. When long bone stops growing, after puberty epiphyseal cartilage disappears and are visible on X-rays as an epiphyseal line mature bone blood supply a. Osteoclasts enlarge marrow cavity b. Osteons form around blood vessels in compact bone c. Nutrient artery and vein: i. A single pair of large blood vessels 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. ii. Enter the diaphysis through the nutrient foramen iii. Femur has more than 1 pair d. Metaphyseal vessels: i. Supply the epiphyseal cartilage ii. Where bone growth occurs e. Periosteal vessels provide: i. Blood to superficial osteons ii. Secondary ossification centers bone remodeling a. The adult skeleton maintains itself and replaces mineral reserves by remodeling b. Remodeling: recycles and renews bone matrix i. Involves osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts c. fractures - breaks in bones cause by physical stress, repaired in 4 steps: i. Bleeding 1. produces a clot (fracture hematoma) 2. Bone cells in the area dieir ii. Cells of the endosteum and periosteum divide and migrate into fracture zone 1. Calluses stabilize the break a. External callus of cartilage and bone surrounds break b. Internal callus develops in marrow cavity iii. Osteoblasts 1. Replace central cartilage of external callus with spongy bone iv. Osteoblasts and osteocytes remodel the fracture for up to a year 1. Reducing bone calluses nutrition and hormone effects on bone a. Normal bone growth and maintenance requires nutritional and hormonal factors b. Minerals i. A dietary source of calcium and phosphate salts: 1. Plus small amounts of magnesium, fluoride, iron, and manganese c. Vitamins i. Vitamin C is required for collagen synthesis, and stimulates osteoblast differentiation ii. Vitamin A stimulates osteoblast activity iii. Vitamins K and B12 help synthesize bone proteins Calcitriol a. Gives us Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) b. Made in kidneys and helps absorb calcium and phosphorus from digestive tract PTH a. Produced by parathyroid glands in neck b. Increases calcium ion levels by: i. Stimulating osteoclasts ii. Increasing intestinal absorption of calcium iii. Decreases calcium excretion at kidneys Calcitonin a. Secreted by C cells (parafollicular cells) in thyroid b. Decreases calcium ion levels by: i. Inhibiting osteoclast activity ii. Increasing calcium excretion at kidneys c. Regulate calcium and phosphate levels Articulations a. Contacts with other bones 48. Marks a. Areas of muscle and ligament attachment 49. Foraminae a. Openings for nerves and blood vessels 50. axial skeleton - 80/206 bones a. Supports and protects organs in body cavities b. Attaches to muscles of: i. Head, neck and trunk ii. Respiration iii. Appendicular skeleton 51. cranial bones (8) a. Enclose the cranial cavity b. Form the braincase or cranium c. Which contains the brain: i. And its fluids, blood vessels, nerves, membranes 52. facial bones (14) a. Protects and support entrances to digestive and respiratory tracts b. Superficial bones for muscle movement c. Deep bones separate the oral and nasal cavities and form the nasal septum 53. 4 major sutures a. Lambdoid suture i. Separates occipital from parietal bones b. Coronal suture i. Attaches frontal bone to parietal bones (calvaria consists of occipital, parietal, and front bones) c. Sagittal suture i. Between the parietal bones lambdoid suture to coronal suture d. Squamous suture i. Form boundaries between temporal bones and parietal bones 54. Skull a. Protects i. The brain ii. Entrances to respiratory system iii. Entrance to digestive system iv. 8 cranial bones v. 14 facial bones 55. Hyoid a. Functions i. Supports the larynx ii. Attaches muscles of the larynx, pharynx, and tongue b. Articulations i. Does not articulate with any other bone 1. Connects lesser horns to styloid processes of temporal bones c. Marks i. Body - attaches muscle of larynx, tongue, and pharynx ii. Greater horns - support larynx & attach muscles of the tongue iii. Lesser horns - attach stylohyoid ligaments and support hyoid and larynx 56. Fontanels a. Are areas of fibrous connective tissue (soft sports) b. Cover unfused sutures in the infant skull c. Allow the skull to flex during birth d. Anterior fontanel - frontal, sagittal, and coronal sutures “soft spot” e. Occipital fontanel - lambdoid and sagittal sutures 57. vertebral column a. Protects the spinal cord b. Supports the head and body c. 26 bones 58. Regions a. Cervical-7 b. Thoracic- 12 c. Lumbar- 5 d. Sacral e. Coccygeal 59. Curvatures a. Cervical Curve b. Thoracic curve c. Lumbar curve d. Sacral curve 60. primary and secondary curves Primary a. Thoracic and sacral curves i. Present during fetal development ii. Aka accommodation curves 1. Accommodate internal organs b. Secondary curves i. Lumbar and cervical curves - appear after birth ii. Aka compensation curves - shift body weight for upright posture 61. 3 parts of vertebra a. Vertebral body (centrum) - transfers weight along the spine b. Vertebral arch - posterior margin of vertebral foramen c. Articular processes - lateral projections between laminae and pedicles d. 62. intervertebral discs a. Are pads of fibrocartilage b. Separate the vertebral bodies c. Absorb shocks i. 63. characteristics of cervical vertebrae: (C1-C7) a. Small body (suport only head) b. Large vertebral foramen (largest part of spinal cord) c. C1 (atlas) has no spinous process all others have short spinous processes d. Tip of each spinous process is notched (bifid) 64. Atlas (c1) a. Articulates with occipital condyles of skull b. Has no body or spinous process c. Has a large, round foramen within anterior and posterior arches 65. Axis (c2) a. Supports the atlas b. Has heavy spinous process c. To attach muscles of head and neck d. Axis and atlas bodies fuse during development to form the dens 66. thoracic vertebrae characteristics (T1-T12) a. Have heart-shaped bodies b. Larger bodies than in C1-C7 c. Smaller vertebral foramen than in C1-C7 d. Long, slender spinous processes e. Dorsolateral surfaces of body have costal facets - which articulate with heads of ribs 67. lumbar vertebrae characteristics (L1-L5) a. Largest vertebrae b. Oval-shaped bodies c. Thicker bodies than T1-T12 d. No costal or transverse costal facets 68. 69. 70. 71. e. Triangular vertebral foramen f. Transverse processes - slender g. Spinous process - short, heavy h. For attachment of lower back muscles Sacrum a. Characteristics i. Is curved, more in males than in females ii. Protects reproductive, urinary, and digestive organs iii. Attaches- the axial skeleton to pelvic girdle of appendicular skeleton iv. Broad muscles that move the thigh v. The adult sacrum: 1. Consists of 5 fused sacral vertebrae 2. Fuses between puberty and ages 25-30 3. Leaving transverse liens Coccyx a. Attaches ligaments and a constricting muscle of the anus b. Mature coccyx- consists of 3 to 5 fused coccygeal vertebrae c. First 2 coccygeal vertebrae- have transverse processes and have unfused vertebral arches thoracic cage a. The skeleton of the chest - supports the thoracic cavity b. Consists of: i. Thoracic vertebrae ii. Ribs (12 pairs) flat bones iii. Sternum (breastbone) 1. Manubrium- superior portion 2. Sternal body 3. Xiphoid process- easily broken c. Rib cage - formed of ribs and sternum i. Functions 1. Flexible 2. Mobile 3. Can absorb shock ii. Movements 1. Affet width and depth of thoracic cage 2. Changing its volume d. Functions: i. Protects organs of the thoracic cavity 1. Heart 2. Lungs 3. Thymus ii. Attaches muscles 1. For respiration 2. Vertebral column 3. Pectoral girdle 4. Upper limbs pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) a. Connects the arms to the body b. Positions the shoulders c. Provides a base for arm movement d. Connects with the axial skeleton at the manubrium e. 2 clavicles (collarbones) i. Long s shaped bones ii. Originated at the manubrium (sternal end) iii. Articulate with the scapulae (acromial end) 2 scapulae (shoulder blades) i. Broad flat triangles ii. Articulate with arm and collarbones pelvic girdle (os coxae) a. 3 fused bones i. Ilium ii. Ischium iii. Pubis b. acetabulum - hip socket i. Meeting point of ilium, ischium and pubis ii. Articulates with head of femur true pelvis a. Pelvic brim i. Upper edge ii. Encloses pelvic inlet b. Perineum i. Inferior edges ii. Perineal muscles support organs of pelvic cavity modifications for childbearing a. Enlarged pelvic outlet b. Broad pelvic angle (>100deg.) c. Less curvature of sacrum and coccyx d. Wide circular pelvic inlet e. Broad low pelvis f. Ilia project laterally, not upwards g. Female pelvis is smoother and lighter synarthrosis a. Characteristics i. No movement ii. Fibrous, bony or cartilaginous connections iii. May fuse over time iv. Very strong b. Types i. Suture 1. Skull only 2. Bony fusion 3. Bound by dense fibrous connective tissue ii. Gomphosis 1. Fibrous 2. Teeth to gums iii. Synchondrosis 1. Rigid cartilaginous bridge between 2 bones 2. Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones 3. Between vertebrosternal ribs and sternum iv. Synostosis 1. Fused bones, immovable 2. Metopic suture of skull 3. Epiphyseal line of long bones amphiarthrosis a. Characteristics i. Little movement ii. Fibrous or cartilaginous connections f. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. iii. Stronger than freely movable joint b. Types i. Syndesmosis 1. Bones connected by ligaments 2. ankle ii. Symphysis 1. Bones separated by fibrocartilage 2. Pubic symphysis 77. diarthrosis a. Synovial b. More movement c. At the end of long bones d. Within articular capsules i. Lined with synovial membrane ii. Where synovial fluid is found 1. Lubrication 2. Nutrient distribution 3. Shock absorption e. Accessory structures i. cartilage - cushion ii. Fat pads- protection iii. Ligaments- support iv. Tendons- support, attaches muscles v. Bursae- cushions where tendons and ligaments rub f. Types of synovial joints i. Gliding 1. Flattened or slightly curved faces 2. Limited motion 3. Ex. intercarpal and intertarsal joints ii. Hinge 1. Angular motion in a single plane 2. Ex. elbow, knee, ankle iii. Pivot 1. Rotation only 2. Ex. atlas, axis iv. Ellipsoidal 1. Oval articular face within a depression 2. Motion in 2 planes (biaxial) 3. Ex. radiocarpal joint, metacarpophalangeal v. Saddle 1. 2 concave faces 2. Straddled 3. First carpometacarpal vi. Ball and socket 1. Round articular face in a depression 2. Ex. shoulder, hip 78. vertebral joints a. C2 to L5 articulate i. Inferior and superior articular processes (gliding joints) ii. Between adjacent vertebral bodies (symphyseal joints) 79. intervertebral disc a. Pads if fibrocartilage b. Separates vertebral bodies c. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. Slipped discs i. Bulge in annulus fibrosus ii. Invades vertebral canal d. Herniated disc i. Nucleus pulposus breaks through annulus fibrosis ii. Presses on spinal cord or nerves shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint) a. Allows more motion than any other joint b. Is the least stable c. Supported by skeletal muscles, tendons and ligaments d. Ball and socket elbow joint a. Stable hinge joint b. Articulations between humerus, radius and ulna c. Humeroulnar joint i. Trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna ii. Limited movement d. Humeroradial joint i. Smaller articulation ii. Capitulum of humerus and head of radius hip joint (coxal joint) a. Strong ball and socket b. Wide range of motion c. Head of femur fits in it d. Socket of acetabulum i. Extended by fibrocartilage acetabular labrum knee joint a. Complicated hinge joint b. Transfers weight from femur to tibia c. femur -tibia articulations i. Medial and lateral condyles ii. Between patella and patellar surface of femur d. Medial and lateral menisci i. Fibrocartilage pads ii. Femur-tibia articulations iii. Cushion and stabilize joint iv. Give lateral support Rheumatism a. Pain and stiffness of skeletal and muscular systems arthritis – all forms of rheumatism that damage articular cartilages of synovial joints a. Osteoarthritis- caused by wear and tear of joint surfaces, or genetic factors affecting collagen formation, generally in people over age 60 b. Rheumatoid- inflammatory condition, caused by infection, allergy or autoimmune disease, involves the immune system, any age c. Gouty- occurs when crystals (uric acid or calcium salts) form within synovial fluid due to metabolic disorders