Introduction To Biochemistry: Lesson 1

INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY LESSON 1 |BIOCHEM NOTE: Italicized and differently bulleted texts are information mentioned during the lecture that isn’t seen in the lecture material BIOCHEMISTRY CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LIVING BEINGS Biological chemistry or Biochemistry – a field of study that connects two sciences: • Biology - the study of life • Chemistry - chemical nature/ chemical structure of the different types of organisms on earth. • The science behind biochemistry is organic chemistry. It is called the chemistry of life. BIOGENIC ELEMENTS • The building blocks of all living organisms; the most abundant being oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen (96% of total body mass) (+sulfur because it is an important component of nucleic acids) • It has the unique potential to generate a variety of chemical combinations that are essential for the makeup of the molecules of living organisms. ❖ If we are talking about a living entity, It is the application of chemistry to the study of living organisms, including all molecules that are found in living organisms and their chemical reactions. CARBON It is the science that seeks to understand life processes at the molecular level. ❖ ❖ Note: In biochem, what we’re trying to analyze is how does diff types of organelles work together to sustain life ❖ SUBDICIPLINES OF BIOCHEMISTRY automatically, its chemical makeup is composed of carbon. It is the element of life. When we say organic molecule, it is automatically composed of Carbon. If it does not have carbon, it is called inorganic material. It is not enough to sustain life. CATEGORIES OF BIOGENIC ELEMENTS DESCRIPTIVE BIOCHEMISTRY PRIMARY ELEMENTS Due to the vast complexity of living organisms, studying the composition of living beings has been extremely challenging as it demands immense research efforts. Descriptive biochemistry is the qualitative and quantitative study of chemistry in living beings. ❖ In descriptive biochemistry, you need to – include O, C, H, N, & the less abundant, Ca & P (98% of total body mass) – comprise K, Su, Na, Cl, Mg, & Fe; have much lower relative quantities; exist as salts, inorganic ions, & part of organic molecules DYNAMIC BIOCHEMISTRY – microconstituents/oligoelements; present in very small quantities; include I, Cu, Mn, Co, Zn, Mo, Se SECONDARY ELEMENTS describe the competition. Ex, what makes a carbohydrate a carbohydrate. It involves the study of chemical reactions that make life as there are countless reactions that take place in living organisms (METABOLISM). ❖ Focuses on chemical reactions. If it’s talking about life processes, functionally, chemical reactions, it is dynamic biochemistry. TRACE ELEMENTS BIOGENIC ELEMENTS ❖ Even a little change in the abundance of these biogenic elements can affect your body. Like even little change of iron can cause anemia. If it’s just being asked to describe a biomolecule, it is descriptive biochemistry. Carbohydrates are important for the process of cellular respiration Credits to the rightful owner of the extra notes <3 ALTHEA REAÑO| 1 BYCHEM9 PRIMARY ELEMENTS ELEMENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE ELEMENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE Oxygen 65.0 Nitrogen 3.0 Carbon 18.5 Calcium 1.5 Hydrogen 10.0 Phosphorus 1.0 ELEMENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE ELEMENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE Potassium 0.30 Chlorine 0.15 Sulfur 0.25 Magnesium 0.05 Sodium 0.20 Iron 0.005 SECONDARY ELEMENTS Potassium is important for the heart's health. The beating of the heart is affected by the amount of potassium in your heart. Iron is an important component of your hemoglobin. ❖ ❖ OLIGOELEMENTS ELEMENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE ELEMENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE Fluorine 0.001 Zinc Traces Cuprum 0.0002 Cobalt Traces Iodine 0.00004 Molybdenum Traces Manganese 0.00003 Selenium Traces ❖ ❖ Oligoelements are important in maximizing the immune response. Its main goal is to support the primary and secondary elements. BIOLOGICAL COMPOUNDS • Among the inorganic compounds, WATER is of exceptional importance due to its numerous biological roles. ❖ Compounds that are able to support life MUSCLE BONE BRAIN LIVER 75.0 22.0 77.0 70.0 Carbohydrates 1.0 Scarce 0.1 5.0 Lipids 3.0 Scarce 12.0 9.0 Proteins 18.0 30.0 8.0 15.0 Other Organic Substances 1.0 Scarce 1.5 1.0 Other Inorganic Substances 1.0 45.0 1.0 Scarce Water ALTHEA REAÑO| 2 BYCHEM9 MONOMERS & MACROMOLECULES ORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NITROGENOUS BASES - components of the nucleic acids (DNA & RNA); both purines and pyrimidines are linked to a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and phosphate ❖ Notes: • • Divided into 2 classifications ➢ Purines - adenine and guanine ➢ Perimedines - thymine and cytosine - AMINO ACIDS components of proteins; comprise the machinery of life (enzymes) and much of the structure of life ❖ Notes: ➢ Synthesized in ribosomes ➢ Can be classified as essential and I’M MADE OF WHAT??? - - non essential (decided on the nutritional value) SUGARS - - components of polysaccharides which make up the carbohydrates (glucose) ❖ Notes: ➢ Monasascharides = simple sugar Note: ❖ Mononers ➢ Mono = 1 ➢ Can be called micromolecules ➢ The nitrogenous bases, amino acids, ➢ ❖ sugars, and fatty acids They serve as the building blocks or macromolecules Macromolecules ➢ Marco = large ➢ Comprised of 2 or more molecules joined together thats why its larger ➢ Can also be called as polymers 25 elements make up all living things About 97% of your body’s mass is made of just 4 elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, & nitrogen. Two other major elements are phosphorus & sulfur. MINOR ELEMENTS • Of course, other elements are also important, but they’re often found in small amounts. • They may seem insignificant, but they’re not. • For example, iron makes up only 0.004% of your body mass, but you can’t live without it! • The human body also relies on many compounds, especially water & salt. ● The human body typically consists of 60-65% water. In other words, 2/3 of your body weight is water. Water is important because many of our body’s chemical reactions can only occur in solutions containing water. Blood, sweat, urine... all mostly water! Salt is also important because of how it can separate into its two ions: Na+ and ClSodium ions regulate the amount of water in our cells, while chlorine ions help our body digest food. FATTY ACIDS together with glycerol make up the fats (for energy storage) and phospholipids (major component of cell membranes) ❖ Notes : ➢ they make up lipids It is the study of compounds containing carbon Over 16 million carbon-containing compounds are known. It plays a part the development of common household chemicals, foods, flavors and fragrances; in our medicines, toiletries and cosmetics; in our plastics, films, fibers and resins; in our paints, varnishes and glues and, of course in our bodies and the bodies of all other living organism MAJOR COMPOUNDS • • • • • ❖ ❖ Dehydration synthesis = removal of water from system to create polymers Hydrolysis = water is used to breakdown big molecules /for polymer breakdown ALTHEA REAÑO| 3 BYCHEM9 stable. In all of these compounds simple subunits called monomers are linked together by condensation reactions. CARBON • • • • • • • ❖ ❖ If you take away the water, the rest of the human body is 53% carbon. It may not be the most abundant element in living things, but it certainly is the most important. At one time, scientists thought that the chemical reactions that took places inside of living things could not occur outside of them. The carbon molecules were so complex, scientists thought they must have been made in some unknown way. They called these carbon compounds organic compounds The word “organic” has lots of meanings. Eventually, scientists realized that the reactions occurring inside the body could occur outside it as well. They also learned how important carbon is in all living things, because of its ability to bond with other atoms. Not all substances made of carbon are living. Diamonds & graphite are pure forms of carbon. Non-organic carbon compounds, and compounds without carbon, are called inorganic compounds. Carbon provides a structural framework because it can create bonds with other carbons. Carbon combined with hydrogen is what you call hydrocarbons which is what you call the backbone of life. ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ carbons can form stable chains they are being held together by covalent bonds Recall SPDF kinemeru sis kaya mo yan carbon lang ang may kayang mag form ng double bond, triple bond, and single bond sa sarili niya What makes carbon so special? • • • • It has a “central” role in all living organisms. It has 4 valence electrons. It makes 4 covalent bonds. It can bond with any element, but really loves to bond with other carbon atoms and make long chains 3 TYPES OF CARBON BACKBONES WHAT IS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY? • • • • • • • We used to describe organic chemistry as the chemistry of living things. Since the chemistry of living things is based on carbon, the chemistry of carbon compounds has come to be known as organic chemistry. It now includes the study of carbon compounds which are not found in living things and so is an incredibly large branch of modern chemistry. Why is life based on the element carbon? There are two important properties of carbon that make it a suitable element to form the compounds in living things: Firstly, carbon atoms can link together to form stable chains of great length. Carbon atoms bind strongly to each other and form very large molecules which are built around this carbon 'backbone'. The covalent bond between two carbon atoms is strong so that the backbones are ALTHEA REAÑO | 4 BYCHEM9 LONG CHAIN HYDROCARBONS & THEIR NAMES • • ❖ The straight chain is the easiest to destroy when exposed to heat kasi nga isang straight lang siya The alkanes make up a series of saturated hydrocarbons, called an homologous series because they have similar properties and have the same general formula: The first four members of the series are gases at room temperature and are called: o methane, CH4 o ethane, C2H6 o propane, C3H8 o butane, C4H10 ❖ Carbon forms long chains methane, ethane, propane, butane = gases ALKANES • • • • • One carbon chain may contain hundreds of carbon atoms. Unlike other elements, carbon atoms can bond to each other to form very long chains. One carbon chain may contain hundreds of carbon atoms. Notice how the CH2 units repeat. A very large carbon-based molecule made of repeating units is called a polymer. Each unit of a polymer is called a monomer. Polymers can be thousands of atoms long ❖ • Repeating units = monomers Carbon forms Rings • • • • • • • • • • Carbon-based molecules also can be shaped like rings. Most carbon rings contain 5 or 6 carbon atoms. One of the most important carbon rings is benzene. It has 6 carbons & 6 hydrogens, with alternating double bonds. Many compounds are based on Benzene. They often have very strong smells or aromas, so they are called aromatic compounds. An example of one aromatic compound is a molecule called vanillin. Guess what that smells like! • Alkanes with increasing numbers of carbon atoms have names are based on the Greek word for the number of carbon atoms in the chain of each molecule. So you can get, for example, o pentane (5), hexane (6), heptane (7) and octane (8) From pentane onwards, approximately the next thirty alkanes in the series are liquids. Alkanes with even longer chains are waxy solids. They are typical covalent compounds, insoluble in water but able to mix with each other. Alkanes burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and steam. What is an isomer? • • • In organic chemistry, there are many examples of different compounds which have the same molecular formula as each other, But different arrangements (structures) of the atoms in their molecules. These are called isomers. ALTHEA REAÑO | 5 BYCHEM9 ISOMER • These compounds are said to be isomers of one another. Isomerism also occurs in inorganic chemistry, but it is less common. ❖ same chemical formula, different • ❖ - In fact, these small changes in structure can have significant effects on the properties of the substance! But, it is important to realize that this can have significant effects in a living system. One optical isomer of glucose, for example, can be used by a living cell, but the other isomer cannot. This is because the enzyme in the cell which recognizes glucose is sensitive to only one form. TWO TYPES OF ISOMERISM COMMON IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: [medyo naguluhan ako sa slides na ‘to nak] - – – – Positional isomers are also usually similar. There are slight physical differences, but the chemical properties are usually very similar. However, occasionally, positional isomers can have quite different properties chemical structure Tautomerization If isomers have the same atoms in them, surely they have the same properties, so what's the point? - POSITIONAL ISOMERS – – – ❖ ❖ A simple example of isomerism is given by propanol: it has the formula C3H8O (or C3H7OH) and two isomers propan-1-ol (n-propyl alcohol; I) and propan-2-ol (isopropyl alcohol; II) Note that the position of the oxygen atom differs between the two: it is attached to an end carbon in the first isomer, and to the center carbon in the second. Ethanol the bigger the carbon elements in a structure, the bigger the isomers The number of possible isomers increases rapidly as the number of atoms increases; for example, the next largest alcohol, named butanol (C4H10O), has four different structural isomers. Structural isomerism FUNCTIONAL GROUP ISOMERS Which have the atoms of their molecules linked in a different order. This can come about in one of three ways: CHAIN ISOMERISM – – – ❖ Chain isomers of the same compound are very similar. There may be small difference in physical properties such as melting or boiling point due to different strengths of intermolecular bonding. Their chemistry is likely to be identical. Isobutane is shaped as Y when drawn skeletal • Functional group isomers are likely to be both physically and chemically dissimilar. There are 116 known elements, organic chemistry concentrates on carbon, just one of the 116 • Formation of urea was the 1st theory to discover, proves that an organic compound can be synthesized from inorganic compounds ALTHEA REAÑO | 6 BYCHEM9 Comparison of Properties of Organic and Inorganic Compounds ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 1. All are carbon compounds 2. Low melting point (less than 360 degrees) 3. Low boiling point 4. Combust easily with oxygen 5. Most insoluble in water 6. Most are soluble in organic solvents Dichloromethane, such as diethyl ether, toluene, and dichloromethane 7. Covalent bond 8. Reacts usually slow INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 1. Salts and oxides (metals) 2. High melting point 3. High boiling point 4. Not combustible The structural formula for methane, CH4, for example, show 5 atoms and the 4 bonds that connect them. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS • 7. Ionic bond 8. Reactions are very fast Two principal ways: Isolation from nature Biosynthesis • A structural formula shows all the atoms present in a molecule as well as the bonds that connect the atoms to each other. 5. Many are soluble in water 6. Almost are insoluble in organic solvents WHERE DO WE OBTAIN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS? – How do we write Structural Formulas of Organic Compounds? • • • ❖ are sites of predictable behavior- a particular functional group, in whatever compound it is found, undergoes the same types of reactions serve as the basis for naming organic compounds. determine in large measure the physical properties of a compound serves as the units by which we classify organic compounds into families 13 Aldehydes, ketones, alcohol = ang kailangan lang sauluhin for functional groups (FORMULA ATA) A process of making organic compounds from living organisms One way, then, to get organic compounds is to extract, isolate, and purify them from biological sources Synthesis in the laboratory – – – Synthesized by a chemist Not obtained in nature The majority of more than 10 million known organic compounds are purely synthetic and do not exist in living organisms. ALTHEA REAÑO| 7 BYCHEM9 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY o o o o o o o Chemical Organelle Cellular Tissue Organ Organ system Organism Bonding to form molecules Atoms will bind with other atoms to form molecules in order to fill their outer shells with electrons and be more stable. TYPES OF BONDS COVALENT BOND – very stable bond often formed by carbon atoms; occurs when two or more atoms share electrons to fill their outer shells IONIC BOND – two or more atoms bind to form a molecule by giving up or receiving electrons from each other to fill their outer shells • • • • • ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ IONS – atoms with a charge; attracted to each other because of their opposite charges, forming a bond resulting in an electrically neutral molecule When placed in water, ionically bonded molecules separate into their individual ions. These ions in solutions, called electrolytes, are capable of conducting electricity. Electrolyte balance is a very important concept in homeostasis, as it can mean life or death. Another type of bond important in physiology is HYDROGEN BOND. It is a weak bond that occurs between a positively charged hydrogen atom and a negatively charged oxygen or nitrogen atom. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding water molecules together. In order for other cells to be stable, it need 2 electrons Ions cation gives ion, anion receive ions (mas positive, mas naattract) Electrolytes - chemical component of organelles, it makes your organelles The gitna ng double helix is a hydrogen bond ❖ ❖ ❖ Water soluble - may compounds na pwedeng matunaw sa tubig at room temperature, not super hot Water insoluble - hindi kayang tunawin ng tubig, kahit matunaw sya if sobrang init ng tubig, insoluble parin sya kasi hindi room temp ang nagpatunaw sakanya. Water - universal solvent WATER As the main component of body fluids, water carries out the following functions: 1. It chemically separates ionically bonded molecules into individual ions called electrolytes. 2. Water works as a lubricant in tears and synovial fluid. 3. Water aids in chemical reactions, as in saliva during digestion. 4. It is used to transport nutrients and wastes in blood plasma. 5. It is used for temperature regulation. It has a high heat capacity to maintain body temperature and can also be used to cool the body when it evaporates from the surface as sweat. ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ Water is an effective catalyst Anabolic reaction - synthesize, to create something new, to produce Catabolic reaction - breakdown, from larger compound, liliit sya 37 degree celsius - room temperature 100 degree celcius - boiling point 0 degree celcius - freezing point SOLUTIONS • • • • • ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ BODY FLUIDS – tears, sweat, saliva, and plasma Water is a common solvent in the body. Concentration – amount of solute present in a solution relative to the amount of the solvent Hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions Tonicity of solutions is important on transport across cell membranes. When you mix a compound with water, you have a solution Concentration is always grams per ml Outside the cell = external environment Internal environment Hypertonic - mataas ang concentration ng salt outside the cell compared to the concentration of solute inside the cell. Hindi ALTHEA REAÑO | 8 BYCHEM9 ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ porket mataas ang salt outside ay hypertonic na. Shrinking or shriveling Isotonic - equal ng salt outside the cell and the solute inside the cell. Hypotonic - kabaliktaran ng hypertonic solution. Mag sswell ang cell Tonicity - passive transport, always high concentration to low water ang nag momove ACIDS, BASES, Ph • ACID – molecule that releases H+ ions when added to water • ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ Using a catalyst increase the speed of reactants/rate of reaction Catalyst - enzyme Pag walang enzyme, mas mataas ng activation energy na kailangan mo before kamaka produce ng product, mas mabagal ang production ng production Mas mababa ang activation energy na kailangan, mas mabilis ang creation product, mas madaming ma-proproduce kasi nga mabilis ney may enzyme siya Energy diagram CELLULAR RESPIRATION BASE – a molecule that will accept H+, often by releasing OH- when added to water • ❖ The strength of acids and bases is measured using a pH scale C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O (To balance the reaction, count the number of atoms of each element on each side of the reaction.) Cellular respiration is performed in cells (to deliver glucose, to deliver oxygen). The reason our cells perform such is to release energy within the bonds of the glucose molecule. The energy should be converted into a usable form (ATP). ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ The higher the ph value, the higher the hydrogen Bumababa ang hydrogen pag acid Base - higher hydrogen kasi nag aaccept sya ❖ Ph scale: 7 to 1 - acids - acidosis above 7 to 14 - alkaline - alkalosis Blood’s ph is 7.35 to 7.45 CHEMICAL REACTIONS The sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in the human body is called METABOLISM. o Reactants → Products Products ← Reactants To speed up the reactions: 1. Increase the concentration of reactants 2. Increase the speed of the reactants 3. Use a catalyst ❖ ❖ the Reactants - molecules you will use to create a product Pag maraming reactants, mas mabilis makakagawa ng product ALTHEA REAÑO | 9 BYCHEM9 ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ organelles must work together Nucleus is also known as the control center of the cell ➢ It protects and hold your genetic material, DNA and RNA (mRNA, eRNA, rRNA) ➢ Inside the nucleus, it has the nucleolus ▪ This nucleolus is important because of the synthesis of the ribosome. ▪ rRNA is being synthesized inside this. It is important for the synthesis of ribosomes. ▪ Ribosomes are important because they serve as the primary site for your amino acids ▪ Without amino acids, no proteins, no proteins no life Cytoplasm - gelly like. For your organelles to be organelles to be organized inside, the cytoplasm is needed. ➢ Has electrolytes which is important for cellular metabolism ➢ this is where metabolic reactions take place ➢ Cytoskeleton - accessory structure, holds down/pin down, the organelles into the cytoplasm kaya hindi siya nag momove kahit jelly like sya. Cell membrane - napili kung sino ang papasok at lalabas, outer covering siya. Nilalabas yung waste material. Entry and exit, guard siya. Cellular transport Ribosomes can only be found in the cytoplasm or in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is called rough kasi nakadikit sa kanya yung ribosomes. Ginagamit for protein sorting. After ma-synthesize ni ribosome, papasok kay Rough endoplasmic reticulum pag dating dyan, dyan siya i-ssort or what you call protein foldings. Yung mga simple proteins na nasysythesize ng ribosomes once it enters the RER, nagiging complex sya. The higher the complexity, the higher the functionality. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is smooth kasi walang nakadikit. Ginagamit for synthesis ng lipids, fats,cholesterol. Ang mga na synthesize na proteins and lipids ay mapupunta sa golgi apparatus. Gumagamit sya ng secretory vesicle (?) na kinukuha ang proteins at lipids para hindi sya maabsorb ng cytoplasm ➢ Siya mag seset kung san pupunta ang proteins at lipids ❖ Lysosomes and Peroxisomes ➢ Lysosomes - suicide bag - for digestion - pati microorganism ay pinapatay nya alongside phagocyctic vesicle ➢ Peroxisomes - for detoxification - oxidized enzyme Phagocytic vesicle - performs Phagocytosis ➢ kinakain yung microorganism. After makain, mag sesend siya ng signal sa lysosome. Mitochondria - powerhouse. Can synthesize 28 to 30 ATPs ALTHEA REAÑO| 10 BYCHEM9 ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ATP - energy currency of the cell ➢ can be synthesized into two organelles only, cytoplasm and mitochondria Glycolysis happens in cytoplasm Krebs and ETC happen in the mitochondria Prokaryotic Cell is – Eukaryotic Cell is – Membrane bound organelles are – [fill nio na lang bes nakopya ko lang yan ☹] Cell membranes have pores (holes) in it a. Selectively permeable: Allows some molecules in and keeps other molecules out b. The structure helps it be selective! FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE • • • Cell membrane separates the components of a cell from its environment— surrounds the cell “Gatekeeper” of the cell—regulates the flow of materials into and out of cell— selectively permeable Cell membrane helps cells maintain homeostasis—stable internal balance CELLULAR TRANSPORT • • Passive Transport Active Transport PASSIVE TRANSPORT A process that does not require energy to move molecules from a HIGH to LOW concentration • Diffusion (Simple) o Diffusion is the movement of small particles across a selectively permeable membrane like the cell membrane until equilibrium is reached. o Diffusion: random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. o Diffusion continues until all molecules are evenly spaced (equilibrium is reached) o Molecules will still move around but stay spread out • Facilitated Diffusion • Osmosis o Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane like the cell membrane Water diffuses across a membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. o Water moves from high to low concentrations o Water moves freely through pores. o Solute (green) to large to move across. ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ Movement is always high to low No need for energy, free falling ganern Diffusion - small molecules, dumadaan sa membrane pores Facilitated Diffusion - large molecules, hindi kasya sa membrane pores, dyan mo gagamitin ang transport protein Osmosis - diffusion of water ENVIRONMENT OF THE CELL MAY BE DESCRIBED AS: • • • Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic TYPES OF CELLULAR TRANSPORT PASSIVE TRANSPORT cell doesn’t use energy 1. Diffusion (Simple) 2. Facilitated Diffusion 3. Osmosis ACTIVE TRANSPORT cell does use energy 1. Protein Pumps 2. Endocytosis 3. Exocytosis ALTHEA REAÑO| 11 BYCHEM9 • • • FACILITATED DIFFUSION Facilitated Diffusion is the movement of larger molecules like glucose through the cell membrane – larger molecules must be “helped”. Transport proteins are needed to move molecules from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration. Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of specific particles through transport proteins found in the membrane a. Transport Proteins are specific – they “select” only certain molecules to cross the membrane b. Transports larger or charged molecules Proteins in the cell membrane form channels for large molecules to pass through Proteins that form channels (pores) are called protein channels. ACTIVE TRANSPORT • • • ❖ ❖ ❖ Active transport is the movement of molecules from LOW to HIGH concentration. Energy is required as molecules must be pumped against the concentration gradient. Proteins that work as pumps are called protein pumps. Protein Pumps - transport proteins that require energy to do work ○ Example: Sodium / Potassium Pumps are important in nerve responses. Endocytosis - outside the cell going inside Exocytosis - inside going out Problem with nucleic acid = mutation ALTHEA REAÑO | 12 CARBOHYDRATES |BIOCHEM LESSON 2 No extra notes from lecture FRUCTOSE TOPIC OUTLINE • Structure Of Carbohydrates • Biochemical Importance • Classification of Carbohydrates • Nomenclature of Carbohydrates ➢ ➢ It also has a molecular formula of C6H12O6 It belongs to the Ketone group. STRUCTURE OF CARBOHYDRATES CARBOHYDRATE – – – – – Is a biomolecule consisting of 3 elements namely Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Is an organic compound that occurs and can be seen in living tissues of food and that can be broken down into energy by people or animals. These can be seen in foods like rice, bread, on table sugar, milk and others. Is a primary and good source of energy. Is classified into 4 types, namely Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides. GALACTOSE ➢ ➢ ➢ It also has a molecular formula of C6H12O6 The structure of it is somewhat similar to the Glucose structure but there’s a difference in the arrangement of the H and OH group. It is also known as the C-4 epimer of Glucose. 4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES • • • • Monosaccharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides MONOSACCHARIDES – – – Type of carbohydrates where it is composed of mainly 1 sugar unit. “Mono” means one, and “saccharide” a Greek word for sugar. Examples of these monosaccharides are Glucose, Galactose, Fructose etc. GLUCOSE ➢ ➢ It has a molecular formula of C6H12O6 It belongs to the Aldehyde group DISACCHARIDES – – – Type of carbohydrates where it is composed of 2 bonded monosaccharides. “Di” means two, and “saccharide” for sugar. Examples of these are Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose etc. SUCROSE ➢ ➢ A product of Glucose and Fructose bonded together. Example of it is simply table sugar. ALTHEA REAÑO| 13 BYCHEM9 LACTOSE ➢ ➢ A product of Galactose and Glucose bonded together. Example of it is Milk. HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDE ➢ MALTOSE ➢ ➢ ➢ A product of two Glucose bonded together. Examples are Sweet potatoes, Cereals etc. A chain of many different Monosaccharides. Examples are Agar, Heparin, Keratan Sulfate DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS REACTION • • OLIGOSACCHARIDES – – Type of carbohydrates where it is composed of 3 to 9 bonded monosaccharides. “Oligo” means just a few, and “saccharide” for sugar. POLYSACCHARIDES – – – – – Type of carbohydrates where it is composed of 10 or more monosaccharides. “Poly” means many, and “saccharide” for sugar. Homopolysaccharides or Homoglycans Heteropolysaccharides or Heteroglycans Examples of these are Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen etc. The process of combining the said compounds. Wherein a Water molecule or H2O molecule will be removed or released, in order to have a bonding. HYDROLYSIS • • The process of breaking down the bonding of the compounds. Wherein a Water molecule or H2O molecule is added to the compounds, in order to separate the bonding. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen = 1:2:1 ratio C6H12O6 HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDE ➢ ➢ ➢ A chain of Glucose or other Monosaccharides. Examples are Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose etc. Starch Structure ALTHEA REAÑO | 14 BYCHEM9 BIOCHEMICAL IMPORTANCE The 4 Major Classes of Biochemical Compounds all biochemical compounds contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen • • • • Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids CARBOHYDRATES • • • • Carbohydrates are the most widespread organic substances and play a vital role in all life. They can be formed by green plants from carbon dioxide and water during the process of photosynthesis. The body can also create them when there are none available to provide the body with the energy it needs to function. Animals can also produce carbohydrates which are called glycogen. FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES (TO HUMANS) ENERGY PRODUCTION – it provides the body's cells with energy. ENERGY STORAGE – The extra glucose is stored as glycogen if the body already has adequate energy to carry out its duties. BUILDING MACROMOLECULES - A portion of the absorbed glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which are crucial components of significant macromolecules like RNA, DNA, and ATP, even though the majority of the absorbed glucose is used to produce energy. SPARING PROTEIN - Having enough glucose essentially prevents the body from breaking down proteins to produce the glucose it needs. LIPID METABOLISM - Lipids cannot be used as a source of energy as blood glucose levels rise. Consequently, glucose also has a "fat-saving" effect. This is so because a rise in blood sugar causes the hormone insulin to be released, which instructs cells to utilize glucose (rather than lipids) as a source of energy. FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES (TO PLANTS) serves as a source of energy essential to carrying out normal functions such as growth, movement and metabolism. Two major functions of carbohydrates to plants: • As starch, they provide nutritional reserves (energy) for the plant. • In the form of cellulose, they are structural elements (humans do not digest cellulose, it is often called “fiber” and has no caloric value.) WHY ARE CARBOHYDRATES IMPORTANT? • It is an essential structural component in organisms; (part of the structure of nucleic acids, which contain genetic information) CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES 1. 2. 3. 4. Monosaccharide Disaccharide Oligosaccharide Polysaccharide MONOSACCHARIDE Also referred to as simple sugars as it only has a one (1) sugar unit and the most fundamental type of sugar. This means that they cannot be broken down any further into simpler sugars by hydrolysis. It incorporates the building blocks of a more convoluted form of sugars such as oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Here, the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is often 2:1. An exception to this is deoxyribose, a type of monosaccharide found in DNA. Some of the characteristics of this are; colorless, crystalline solids, and sweet-tasting. They can be liquefied in water and occur as syrups or liquid sugar. They possess carbon covalently bound to other atoms, especially Carbon-Carbon (C-C) and CarbonHydrogen (C-H). “Glucose is the most abundant carbohydrate in the human body” There are three main monosaccharide in the human diet - the glucose, galactose, and fructose. ALTHEA REAÑO | 15 BYCHEM9 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDE: GLUCOSE - It can merge with other monosaccharide units to create or construct disaccharides. It also serves as the primary fuel for energy production, especially for the brain, muscles, and several body organs and tissue. DISACCHARIDE The term itself etymologically means two saccharides (or two monosaccharide units). Because of the presence of carbon and C-C and C-H covalent bonds, disaccharides are also organic compounds. It is a carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds. There are two classifications of disaccharides, and these are: There are actually several forms of disaccharides but the most common ones are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. These three are made up of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond. GALACTOSE - it is a nutrient that provides energy and is similar to glucose in terms of chemical structure. However, the orientations of H and OH on carbon 4 are exchanged. Unlike glucose, galactose generally does not occur in a free state. It usually is a component of complex biomolecules. It is also an important component at complex polysaccharides, which are found in several glycoproteins and immunological determinants, hormones, cell membrane structures, etc. CLASSIFICATIONS OF DISACCHARIDE: SUCROSE (common table sugar) is formed by the combination of glucose and fructose through a condensation reaction. They are linked through a glycosidic linkage between C-1 (on the glucosyl unit) and C-2 (on the fructosyl unit). LACTOSE - (milk sugar) is formed by the combination of glucose and galactose. It is digested or broken down into its monosaccharide units through hydrolysis with the help of enzyme lactase. FRUCTOSE - it is considered as the sweetest naturally-occurring carbohydrate. Some of the innate sources of this are honey, fruits, and sugar cane. It occurs freely or bonded to glucose to form sucrose. Furthermore, it can enter or initiate glycolysis and produce intermediates for cellular respiration. MALTOSE - (malt sugar) is a reducing disaccharide formed when two glucose monomers join together by glycosidic bond. It is digested into its monosaccharide units through hydrolysis with the help of enzyme maltase. ALTHEA REAÑO | 16 BYCHEM9 OLIGOSACCHARIDE It is composed of a few saccharides (3-9). It is formed by the joining of monosaccharide units by glycosidic bonds. Thereby, many of the naturallyoccurring oligosaccharides are linked to other biomolecules, such as proteins, peptides, and lipids. POLYSACCHARIDE It is a carbohydrate formed by long chains of repeating units linked together by glycosidic bonds. So, the term polysaccharide etymologically means multi saccharides. It is a type of biological macromolecule composed of multiple monosaccharide units. Some of the characteristics of polysaccharides are: not sweet in taste, many of which are insoluble in water, do not form any crystals when desiccated, compact and not osmotically active inside the cells. CLASSIFICATION OF POLYSACCHARIDE Polysaccharides may be a homopolysaccharide or a heteropolysaccharide depending on their monosaccharide components. A homopolysaccharide (also called homoglycan) is made up of only one type of monosaccharide whereas a heteropolysaccharides (also called heteroglycan) is composed of different types of monosaccharides. The act or process or an instance of naming - GROUPS TRIOSE Carbohydrates w/ 3 carbons TETROSE w/ 4 carbons PENTOSE w/ 5 carbons HEXOSE w/ 6 carbons HEPTOSE w/ 7 carbons Carbohydrates can be identified by the ending -ose at the end of their names. • ALDOSES - Carbohydrates with an • aldehyde group. KETOSES - Carbohydrates with ketone group. Example: ALDOPENTOSE - A carbohydrate with an aldehyde group and five carbons. KETOHEXOSE - A carbohydrate with a ketone group and six carbons. STEPS IN NAMING CARBOHYDRATES STEP 1: Identify the major functional group. STEP 3: Add -ose at the end of their names. NOMENCLATURE \ ˈnō-mən-ˌklā-chər also nō-ˈmen-klə-ˌchu ̇ r, ˈmeŋ-, -chər, -ˌtyu ̇ r, -ˌtu ̇ r\ MAJOR FUNCTIONAL CARBOHYDRATE Carbohydrates can be identified by the ending -ose at the end of their names. STEP 2: Identify the number of carbon chain. NOMENCLATURE OF CARBOHYDRATES - REMEMBER: ALDOSES Example 1: Glyceraldehyde • Simplest carbohydrate IN Aldehyde [ALDO] Ketone [KETO] CARBONYL (CARBONYL GROUP) Is a chemically organic functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom -> [C=0] ALTHEA REAÑO | 17 BYCHEM9 Example 2: Eryhtrose KETOSES Remember! Most common ketoses has a ketone functional group on the second carbon in the chain. KEY POINTS • Carbohydrates are divided into four types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. • Monosaccharides are composed of mainly 1 sugar unit. • Disaccharides are composed of 2 bonded monosaccharides. • Oligosaccharides are composed of 3 to 9 bonded monosaccharides. • Polysaccharides are composed of 10 or more monosaccharides. • All biochemical compounds contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen • There are three main monosaccharides in the human diet which are glucose, galactose, and fructose. • Lactose or milk sugar is formed by the combination of glucose and galactose. • The two major functional groups involved in CHO are Aldehyde & Ketone. • Carbohydrates can be identified by the ending -ose at the end of their names Example 1: Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) • Simplest Ketose Example 2: Psicose ALTHEA REAÑO | 18