Vic. Exam 1 Study Guide

EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE Chapter 1 What is victimology? (Read Page 1) - - Examples From the PowerPoints o Scientific study of crime victims; causes of victimization, its consequences, and how the criminal justice system assists victims; how other elements of society (media, family) deal with crime victims. Examples from the Textbook o Victimology is considered a subfield of criminology, and the two fields do share much in common. o Just as criminology is the study of criminals- why they do it, what they do, and how the criminal justice system responds to them- victimology is the study of the victim. o The study of the etiology (or causes) of victimization, its consequences, how the criminal justice system accommodates and assists victims, and how other elements of society, such as the media, deal with crime victims. o Victimology is a science; victimologists use the scientific method to answer questions about victims. o Benjamin Mendelsohn first used the term “victimology” to describe the scientific study of crime victims. Retribution (Read page 1-2) - Examples from the Textbook o Before and throughout the Middle Ages the justice system operated under the principle of lex talionis, an eye for an eye.  A criminal would be punished because he or she deserved it, and the punishment would be equal to the harm caused.  Punishment based on these notions is consistent with retribution.  During this time, a crime was considered harm against the victim, not the state.  The concepts of restitution and retribution governed against criminals. Victim facilitation (Read page 2-3) - - Examples from the PowerPoint o An irresponsible act by a victim was taken advantage of by an offender.  A victim unintentionally makes it easier for an offender to commit a crime, e.g., leaving a purse in plain view. Examples from Textbook o Similar to victim precipitation is the concept of victim facilitation. o This occurs when a victim unintentionally makes it easier for an offender to commit a crime. o A victim may, in this way, be a catalyst for victimization.  A woman who accidentally left her purse in plain view in her office while she went to the restroom and then had it stolen would be a victim who facilitated her own victimization.  Unlike precipitation, facilitation helps understand why one person may be victimized over another but does not connote blame and responsibility. Victim/offender dyad (read page 3) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Hans Von Hentig  Victims and offenders needed to be considered in a dyad (criminal-victim dyad) in order to fully understand victimization. Criminals and victims are not considered in isolation, but together. Examples from Textbook o Hentig looked at the criminal-victim dyad, recognizing the importance of considering the victim and the criminal not in isolation but together. Sub intentional homicide - - Examples from PowerPoint o The victim facilitates his or her own death. o Poor judgement o Places themselves at risk o Using drugs or alcohol o Living a risky lifestyle o Percent of victims were sub intentional. Examples from Textbook o Since Wolfgang’s study of victim-precipitated homicide, others have expanded his definition to include felony related homicide and sub intentional homicide.  Sub intentional occurs when the victim facilitates his or her own demise by using poor judgement, placing himself or herself at risk, living a risky lifestyle, or using alcohol or drugs.  Perhaps not surprising, a study of sub intentional homicide found that as many as three-fourths of victims were sub intentional. Crime Victims Assistance Programs (read pages 7-10) - Examples from the PowerPoint o Pertaining to the victims’ rights movement  President’s commission on Law enforcement and the administration of Justice (1966)  1st government sponsored victimization survey- National Crime Survey (now the national crime victimization survey)  Shed light on how much crime was not reported to police (Dark figure of crime)  Official data sources focus only on reported crime, NCVS relied on victims’ recollection regardless of statis of reporting.  Identified why people were reluctant to report to law enforcement and developed a different understanding of victimization.  Contributions of victim’s rights movement  1965-Cali- first victim compensation program  1972- three victim assistance programs developed across the U.S.  1974- first prototypes of victim/witness assistance programs  Programs responsible for notifying victims of court proceedings and provide guidance during the court process.  Development of victim organizations  Secondary victims- people affected by the victimization of a loved one-weren’t receiving support.  Organizations for secondary victims (MADD- parents of murdered children, etic.) were established to support and advocate for policy change.  National Organization for Victim Assistance (NOVA)  Developed in 1975 to consolidate purposes of victim’s rights movement, hold national conferences and provide training for those working with victims. o Pertaining to legislation and policy  1979/1980- Wisconsin was the 1st state to pass victims’ bill of rights. 1980- National Organization for Victim Assistance Police platform 1980- President’s task force on Victims of crime  4 main initiatives o Federal legislation for state victim compensation and local assistance programs o Recommendations for those that work with victims. o Creation of task force on family violence o Recommended Victim’s Rights amendment  1984- Victims of Crime Act (VOCA)  Established crime victims’ funds.  Established office for victims of crime.  1994- Violent crime control and law enforcement act  Included violence against women act (VAWA) *WOMENS MOVEMENT*  1998- New directions from the field  Investigated where we were at with recommendations from Presidential task force.  1990s- State efforts to afford victims ‘rights.  Right to be present at trial  Separate waiting room  Notified of key events in the case  Testify of parole hearings  Informed of rights’  Treated with dignity and respect.  2004- Justice for all act- continues to implement and expand victims’ rights Examples from textbook o Victim’s Right’s movement  National Crime survey o The first prototypes for what today are victim/witness assistance programs housed in district attorneys’ offices were funded in 1974 by the Federal Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. o These programs were designed to notify victims of critical dates in their cases and to create separate waiting areas for victims. o Some began to make social services referrals for victims, providing them with input on CJ decisions that involved them, such as bail and plea bargains, notifying them about critical points in their cases, and going to court with them. o Legislation and Policy  Federal Legislation to fund state victim compensation programs and local victim assistance programs.  Recommendations to criminal justice professionals and other professionals about how to better treat crime victims.  Creation of a task force on violence within families.   - An amendment to the U.S. constitution to provide crime victim’s rights (yet to be passed). Victims of Crime Act  Provides money to state victim compensation and local victim assistance programs.  o Women’s Movement (read page 7) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Brought attention to violence against women. o Byproduct of sexism, traditional sex roles, and family values o Also brought attention to effects of victimization on children o Three critical developments arose from this movement.  Victimization often entails emotional and mental harm.  Additional victimization by the criminal justice system should be avoided.  Shelters and centers relied largely on volunteers, so they can remain open even without budgetary support. o Pertaining to the civil rights movement  Brought attention to mistreatment of minorities by Criminal Justice system as both offenders and victims.  The women’s rights movement and civil rights movement merged to create a victim’s rights movement supported by females, minorities, and young persons who pushed an agenda of victim support in the criminal justice system. Examples from Textbook o In recognition that victimizations such as sexual assault and domestic violence were a by-product of sexism, traditional sex roles, emphasis on traditional family values, and economic subjugation of women, the women’s rights movement took on as part of its mission helping female victims of crime. o Feminists concerned with how female victims were treated by the criminal justice system and pushed for victims of rape and domestic violence to receive special care and services. o Correlated with this movement was children’s rights. o READ PAGE 7 Crime Prevention (read page 13) - Examples from Textbook o Knowing the extent to which people are victimized, who is likely targeted, and the reasons why people are victimized can help in the development of prevention. o Needs to target the known causes of victimization. o o o The chance that the offender is reformed is slim so reliance on that fact limits complete crime prevention.  The victim and the offender both need to be addressed to stop crime victimization. Offenders should be discouraged from committing crimes, likely through informal mechanisms of social control. Potential victims also play a key role in preventing victimization.  Factors that place victims at risk need to be addressed to the extent that victims can change them.  Changes to routine activity Cost of Victimization (read page 11) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Costs can be tangible. o Cost of stolen property o Medical bills o Mental health issue o Money Spent by the CJ System o Preventing and responding to crime o Fear  Fear of being revictimized or fear of being a victim in general o Pertaining to the crime victim and the CJ System  Distrust of the police  Less likely to call the police. o Police will not take them seriously.  Cops may think it’s a waste of time. o Victims aren’t treated with respect and dignity. Examples from Textbook o Can be tangible, such as the cost of stolen or damaged property or the costs of receiving treatment at the emergency room, but they can be harder to quantify. o Crime victims may experience mental anguish or other more serious mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder. o Costs also include monies spent by the criminal justice system preventing and responding to crime and monies spent to assist crime victims. o An additional consequence of victimization is fear of being a victim.  This fear may be tied to the actual risk of being a victim or, with the other consequences of victimization. Victim precipitation (read page 2) - Examples From PowerPoint o - The extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own victimization.  E.g., using fighting words Examples from Textbook o Defined as the extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own victimization. o The concept is rooted in the notion that, although some victims are not responsible for his or her own victimization, other victims are. o Acknowledges that victimization involves at least two people- an offender and a victim- and that both parties are acting and often reacting before, during, and after the incident. o Identifying this does not necessarily lead to negative outcomes, however, becomes problematic when it’s used to blame the victim while ignoring the offender’s role. Victim Provocation (read page 3) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Incited someone to commit a criminal offense against him or her.  E.g., without the victim’s behavior, the crime would not have been committed/occurred- burglar gets shot while breaking into someone’s house. Examples from Textbook o Occurs when a person does something that incites another person to commit an illegal act. o Provocation suggests that without the victim’s behavior, the crime wouldn’t have occurred. o Connotes blame, the offender is not at all responsible o E.g., a person attempted to mug a man who was walking home from work and the man, instead of willingly giving the offender his wallet, pulled out a gun and shot the mugger. Chapter 2 Measures of Crime and their advantages/disadvantages - Examples from PowerPoint o UCR  Only crimes reported to the police each year.  Pros  Represents over 90% of the population.  Can establish trends and see crime characteristics. Cons  Only represents reported crime- all crimes aren’t represented.  Hierarchy rule o If 2 offenses occur the most serious offense is recorded o Simple assault, sexual assaults, other than rape and federal crimes not accounted for o National Incident based reporting system (NIBRS)  Expanded info on criminal incidents.  Includes 22 offense categories covering 46 crimes.  Source of info on crime victims and incidents  Eliminates hierarchy rule.  Problem  Not all law enforcement agencies participate and provide data. o National crime victimization survey (NCVS)  Survey households to determine the amount of crime that has occurred.  US census bureau administers.  43,000 households for 3-year period with survey every 6 months  Collects info on crime that has been experienced by persons 12 years and older.  2 stage process  Asked if they experienced specific crime.  If yes, researchers will make a detailed incident report.  Advantages  Includes reported and unreported crimes.  Includes some UCR pt. 1 crimes and others.  Short recall period of 6 months  Administered by census bureau so all households receive.  2-stage processes- screen questions and incident reports. Incident report questions screen for each element of the crime. All elements of the crime must be present for the crime to be included in estimates of that type of crime victimization.  Disadvantages  Memory and truth problems.  Series victimization may not be accurately reported (crime happened so frequently, victim can’t remember each incident distinctly)  Murder and “victimless” crime not included.  Commercial establishments and people under 12 not included. Examples from Textbook o UCR  Shows the amount of crime known to the police in a year.  Advantages  97% of the population is represented by agencies participating in the UCR program, it provides an approximation of the total amount of crime experienced by almost all Americans.  - Crime characteristics are also reported- demographic information on people arrested and some information on the crimes, such as location and time of occurrence.  Disadvantages  Does not provide detailed information on crime victims  Only includes information on crimes that are reported to the police  Only part 1 index offenses and uses the hierarchy rule National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)  Expanded data collection effort that includes detailed information about crimes.  o Routine Activities Theory (read pages 24-25) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Prosperity of society could increase victimization. o Our daily behaviors influence our vulnerability to victimization. o For victimization to occur, there must be 3 elements that come together at the same time and place:  Motivated offender  Someone willing and capable of committing a crime.  Suitable targets  Chosen based on attractiveness- ability to be victimized (Laptop, watch, purse, wallet, cellphone, a child, a weak person)  Lack of capable guardianship  target cannot be effectively guarded to prevent a victimization to occur.  can be social (someone else around) or physical (burglar alarm, carrying a weapon) Examples from Textbook o APPLIES TO BOTH ROUTINE ACTIVITIES AND LIFESTYLES-EXPOSURE THEORIES o Were put forth that both linked crime victimization risk to the fact that victims had to come into contact with a potential offender. o Includes  A motivated offender  Suitable targets  Capable guardianship     Principle of homogamy Neighborhood context Exposure to delinquent peers Family ties Lifestyles-Exposure Theory - Examples from PowerPoint o Victimization is more likely when one’s behavior/lifestyle puts them in vulnerable situations.  Working out of the home/engaging in leisure activities, working late at night, going to bars  Differences in socialization of females vs. males o Principle of homogamy  The more frequently one encounters demographic groups of likely offenders, the more likely he or she is to be victimized. o Risky choices may be out of necessity (living in a bad neighborhood; working a night shift; and taking the bus home) o Routines are often altered after being victimized (changing behavior, home alarm, not walking alone, more lighting) Neighborhood Context Theory - Examples from PowerPoint o Where a person lives and spends time may place them at risk o Hot spots  Concentrated areas of crime. A person living in or frequently a hot spot will be putting themselves in danger. o Family structure  Female- headed households have higher rates of theft and violent victimization. o Structural density  5 or more units positively related to victimization. o Residential mobility  Living and moving into different houses within short periods of time o Neighborhood contexts  Disadvantaged neighborhoods with less informal social control increases risk of victimization - Examples from Textbook o Hot spots  Some areas that are very crime prone o Family structure  Large percentage of female-based households have higher rates of theft and violent victimization. o Structural density  Measured by the percentage of units in structures of five or more units, is positively related to victimization. o Residential mobility  Or the percentage of persons 5 years and older living in a different house from 5 years before, also predicted victimization. o Also includes exposure to delinquent peers and family ties. Social Interactionist Perspective (read page 29) - - Examples from PowerPoint o The more distress one is in the more likely he or she could act in a way to provoke a victimization. o Distress- reaction sequence o Distressed people may entice aggression given bad attitudes, rule-breaking (student in class learning he just failed a test) o Distressed break social rules and those aggrieved by that respond aggressively. o Contribution of stress to offending and victimization  Distress is a cause of victimization. Examples from Textbook o Criminal behavior is learned behavior. o Specifically learned through differential association (spending time with delinquent or criminal others) whereby imitation or modeling of behavior occurs. Age-Graded Theory/Adult Social Bonds - - Examples from PowerPoints o People move in and out of crime. o Social bonds insulate people from criminal behavior. o Marriage and employment are factors that inhibit someone from committing crime and thus being at risk for victimization- too much to lose. o Inconsistent with routine activities and lifestyle theories as the more time people spend out of the home, the more likely they are to be victimized. Examples from Textbook o Identified two key social bonds.  Marriage and employment  Can aid people in moving out of a life of delinquency and crime as they emerge into young adulthood.  A person who has these two social bonds will have much to lose engaging in crime, which will promote crime desistance if he or she was previously involved in crime. Link between victimizing and offending ON PAGE 24 Control/Balance theory (page 30) - - Examples from PowerPoint o The amount of control that people possess over others and the amount of control to which one is subject factor into their risk of engaging in deviancy. o Control surplus  When a person has more control than what he or she is subject to  Used to having their needs and desires met and having a desire to extend their control.  Engage in risky behaviors because there’s little to restrain their actions.  Treat others with control deficits poorly so they may be victimized. o Control deficit  When a person has less control than what he or she is subject to  Due to little control, they lack confidence or relief that they can protect themselves- vulnerable targets.  May lash out or victimize people who try to control them. o Control surplus or deficit may lead to deviant behavior and victimization. Control surplus linked to exploitation of others, control deficit linked to defiance and repressive defiance. Examples from Textbook o Control Balance Theory This theory proposes that the amount of control that people possess over others and the amount of control to which one is subject factor into their risk of engaging in deviancy. Control ratio  When considered together. Control surplus  When the control a person has exceeds the amount of control, he or she is subject to Control deficit  When the amount of control a person exercises is outweighed by the control, he or she is subject to. When a person has a control surplus or deficit, he or she is likely to be predisposed towards deviant behavior. Engage in risky behaviors because there is little restrain their actions.  o o o o o Biophysical Factors (read pages 33-34) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Genes and Victimization  This body of research had found a link between different genetic polymorphisms and behaviors relevant to criminology, such as criminal involvement and alcohol and drug use.  Research has shown that sometimes these variations impact the likelihood of engaging in certain behaviors, such as violence, aggression, and delinquency,  Head injuries are also linked to victimization- poor executive functioning of the brain.  Mental disorders are also linked to victimization- antisocial behavior, little care for others, callousness, lack of empathy. Examples from textbook o One important aspect of the link between genetics and crime is that possessing a variant for a gene, or having certain polymorphism for a particular neurotransmitter, appears to “matter” only in certain environments. o Genes tend to be important not for everyone in every circumstance but for individuals in particular contexts. Chapter 3 Physical Injury (read page 40) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Injury can be short lives to permanent. o Characteristics of those who do incur injury (NCVS, 2016)  27% of assault victims  35% of robbery victims  Incidents perpetrated by non-strangers were more likely to result in injury than those perpetrated by strangers. Examples from PowerPoint o These injuries can include bruises, soreness, scratches, cuts, broken bones, contracted diseases, ands stab or gunshot wounds. o Some may be temporary and some long-term or permanent. o 22.7% of violent victimizations involved an injury. o A larger percentage of female victims were injured than male victims. o The more serious physical injury is death.  NCVS does not measure murder. Behavioral Reactions (read page 40-43 in case) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Self-Blame: Blaming oneself for victimization  Characterological self-blame- victims blamed their own character for why they’re victimized.  Believed that victimization is deserved. o Behavioral self-blame  Blame is attached to a modifiable source (behavior)  Victims can do something to avoid future victimization. o Learned Helplessness  Feel that responding to victimization is useless, victims become passive and numb but stay in risky situations.  People who interpret their trauma as being experience behavioral changes that lead to further victimization. o Self-harm  Intentional hurting/cutting that’s not suicidal in nature.  Not a mental illness, but behavioral issue associated with a lack of coping skills.  Common in children who are bullied. Examples from PowerPoint o Self-Blame      Victims may blame themselves for their victimization. One type of self-blame is characterological self-blame.  Occurs when a person ascribes blame to a nonmodifiable source, such as one’s character.  Involves believing that victimization is deserved. Behavioral self-blame  Occurs when a person ascribes blame to a modifiable source.  When a person turns to behavioral self-blame, future victimization can be avoided as long as behavior is changed. Learned Helplessness  A response to victimization in which victims learn that responding is futile and become passive and numb.  In this way, victims may not activate to protect themselves in the face of danger and, instead, stay in risky situations that result in subsequent victimization experiences. Self-harm  Also referred to as self-injury or cutting, involves the intentional hurting of oneself, usually with a knife, that is not suicidal in nature.  While individuals may hurt themselves deliberately for a variety of reasons, those who have experienced trauma, abuse, or neglect are most likely at risk for this behavior. Economic Costs - Examples from PowerPoint o Costs incurred by victim and the public (public health issue) o Common economic costs  Property losses  Cost of medical care  Time away from work, school, and home  Pain, suffering, quality of life reduction  Legal costs o Property loss due to victimization  Value or property taken, damaged, and not recovered. Insurance claims are considered.  94% of property crime victims experienced economic loss.  Arson+ $15,000 per incident  16% of victims recover some or all of their property. o Medical care  Transporting victims to the hospital  Doctor care  Gun violence is associated with inflated medical costs (2.8 billion in emergency room/hospital costs annually)  Prescription drugs o - Economic costs by crime type  Child abuse- costs 6.2 billion annually  Battered women- costs 1.8 billion annually  Assaults with injuries- 1,470 per incident  Drunk Driving victims injured- 6,400 per incident. o Gunshot Victims  Make up 1/3 of all crime-related hospitalizations.  Lifetime medical costs= 1.7 billion for all gunshot victims (1994) o Mental health care  10-20% of total mental health costs are crime related.  Victims seek treatment to deal with the effect of victimization. o Productivity losses  At place of employment, housework, and school  Intimate partner violence victims lost almost 8 million paid days of work.  Parents lose work time when children are victimized. o Pain, Suffering, and quality of life issues  Most difficult elements to “quantify” but largest cost that victims sustain.  Victims may change routines and lifestyles (change of phone numbers, purchase, and carry weapon) o How can we purchase a dollar value to this? Should victims bear these cost burdens? o System costs  U.S. spends upward of $295 Billion annually on CJ system (law enforcement, courts, correction)  U.S. covers ¼ of health insurance payouts to crime victims  Gunshot victims cost taxpayers over $4.5 billion annually.  Insurance companies pay $45 billion annually on crime-related claims.  Costs of victimization are not distributed equally- areas with more violent victimizations incur greater hospital costs paid out of public funds. Examples from Textbook o Incurred on both victims and the public. o Direct property losses  Victims experience tangible losses in terms of having their property damaged or taken.  The value of property that is damaged, taken, and not recovered, and insurance claims and administration costs are considered. o Medical care  Encompass such expenses as transporting victims to the hospital, doctor care, prescription drugs, allied health services, medical devices, coroner payments, insurance claims processing fees, and premature funeral expenses.  Gun violence is associated with substantial medical costs for victims (page 46) o Mental health o o o  10-20% of mental health care is related to crime.  Seeking treatment to deal with their victimization. Losses in productivity  Persons who are victimized may experience an inability to work at their place of employment, complete housework, or attend school. Pain, suffering, and lost quality of life  When these elements are added to the costs associated with medical care, lost earnings, and programs associated with victim assistance the cost to crime victims increases 4 times.  Another cost that crime victims may experience is a change in their routines and lifestyles.  Many victims report that they changed their behavior.  Victims of stalking may change their phone number, move, or change their normal routines. System costs (page 48)  The victim is not the only entity impacted economically by crime.  Law enforcement, the courts, and corrections, the direct expenditures of the criminal justice system for states are more than $295 billion annually. Vicarious Victimization - - Examples from PowerPoint o Effects of victimization on those close to the victim o When loved ones of crime victims also suffer the consequences of victimization. o For example, homicide survivors  ¼ of homicide survivors develop PTSD, higher levels of stress, anxiety, depression, and hostility  Parents with deceased children are more likely to develop suicidal tendencies.  Treatment by CJ system and police also affect this. o May occur when someone is traumatized by watching coverage of violent acts through media (i.e., highly public event, 9/11, Idaho, LSU, Sandy Hook). o Vicarious victimization by higher publicized crime:  Realistic threat of death to all members  Extraordinary carnage  Strong community affiliation  Witnessing of event by community members  Symbolic significance of victims to community  Need for rescue workers.  Significant media attention Examples from Textbook (pages 48-50) o The effects that victimization has on others. o This has been most widely studied regarding homicide survivors.  People whose loved ones have been murdered.  Experience post-traumatic stress  Experience behavioral consequences o Parents who have lost a child to homicide will exhibit suicidal tendencies. Reporting (read pages 50-51) - - Examples from PowerPoint o Reporting the crime to law enforcement and subsequent involvement in the criminal justice system is important.  If crime is not reported, it is unlikely that offender will ever get caught.  Sends message to offender that they can freely offend, perhaps again victimize the same victim.  Reporting is the only way to receive certain services provided by CJ system (i.e., support groups, compensation) o Only about half of all crimes are reported. o Reports most likely when:  The offender is armed.  Offender is under influence of drugs or alcohol.  The offender is a stranger.  The offender is a non-gang member.  Victims suffer an injury. o Common reasons crime victims choose to report.  Prevent future crime.  Protect others.  Recover property.  Injury  The offender is a stranger. o Common reasons victims DON’T report.  Private matter  Reported to another official  Unsuccessful crime/item returned.  Fear of retaliation or getting offender in trouble Examples from Textbook o Reporting an offense to the police o Reporting may intensify some of these consequences, may moderate some of the impact, or may be somewhat unrelated to the victim’s experiences after the incident occurs. o Why it’s important.  It’s the first essential step in activating the formal criminal justice system.    Without a report the victim is left to deal with the aftermath through other channels, and the police will never begin an investigation. Likely the offender will never be caught without the first step.  The offender learns they can offend freely with no punishment- or perhaps even the same person again. Victims may also be negatively impacted if they do not report.  Victim advocates can only be assigned if the crime is reported. Fear - Examples from PowerPoint o Emotional response to a perceived threat o Physiological response causing fight or flight or flee reaction. o Fear of crime is different from perceived risk of crime.  Fear of crime  Activates the body to alert them to danger (physiological response, heart rate increases, breathing increases, etc.)  Perceived risk  Perceived likelihood that a person will become a crime victim.  Perceptions of risk are related to fear in those who perceive their risk of victimization to be high. o Fear of crime is difficult to measure. Survey questioned are used. o The types of questions asked didn’t ask about fear specifically.  How safe do you feel at school, in your neighborhood walking alone.  Not asked about types of criminal behavior of which a person is fearful. o Some groups are actually less likely to be victimized but report higher levels of fear.  Women, older people, younger people o Females and older persons more fearful o Females  Why?  Overacting fear of sexual assaults  “Shadow Hypothesis”- fear of sexual assaults increases their fear of other crimes. o Older individuals  Why?  Likely to feel that they can fend off attackers or otherwise protect themselves.  Lack of understanding of technology, scams, phishing (cybercrime) o Incivilities Tied to fear of crime-related to people’s perceived risk of crime and that risk of crime is related to fear.  Low-level breaches of community standards indicate erosion of conventionally accepted norms and values.  Incivilities predict fear of burglary, vandalism, pan-handling, drug/gang violence. o Physical  Disordered physical surroundings.  Litter, trash, and untended property o Social Incivilities  Untended people or behavior  Rowdy youth, loiterers, and people drinking. o Fear or crime as “good”  Can be good if it leads to protection. o Avoidance behaviors (constrained behaviors)  Restrictions that people place on their behaviors to protect themselves from harm.  Staying at home o Defensive/Protective Behaviors  Guard themselves  Purchasing a gun, installing security system/camera  Excessive levels of fear are problematic to the extent that people sever themselves from the outside world/activities they enjoy.  Behaviors that people engage in to protect themselves may make them feel less safe. Examples from Textbook o Fear of crime is different from perceived risk.  Perceived risk is the perceived likelihood that a person feels that he or she will become a crime victim. o For females, this elevated fear of crime has been attributed to their overarching fear of sexual assault.  The “shadow hypothesis”, this fear of sexual assault serves to increase females’ fears of other types of crimes. o Incivilities  Low-level breaches of community standards indicate erosion of conventionally accepted norms and values. o Physical Incivilities  Which are disordered physical surroundings such as litter, trash, and untended property. o Social Incivilities  Which are untended people or behavior such as rowdy youth, loiterers, and people drinking. o Avoidance behaviors  - Are restrictions that people place on their behavior to protect themselves from harm, such as staying home at night. Defensive or protective behaviors  To guard themselves from victimization, such as purchasing a gun or installing security lights  o Chapter 4 Types of recurring victimization - Examples from PowerPoint o Recurring victimization  Being victimized once increases the likelihood that you will be victimized again  Persons who have been victimized are MORE likely to be victimized again than others who haven’t experienced any victimization.  When a person or place is victimized more than once of any type of victimization. Any amount of time between incidents o Repeat victimization.  When a person or place is victimized more than once by the SAME TYPE of victimization, close in time, same development period (college student assaulted in May and June) o Revictimization  When a person is victimized more than once by any type of victimization, but across a relatively wide span of time. Any amount of time between incidents. Can occur in different development periods (abused as a child, raped as an adult). o Poly-victimization  Most often used when referring to childhood victimization. Occurs when a child is the victim of multiple crimes by multiple actors (child hit by their parents and then bullied at school). Must be during the same developmental time period. o Near-repeat victimization  Crimes that occur to places within a close proximity to the original victim. No set time frame, but geographic proximity must be there (house - burglarized and 6 months later, the house next door is burglarized). Often studied in reference to burglary incidents Examples from PowerPoint o Recurring victimization  When a person is victimized more than once by any type of victimization o Repeat victimization.  When a person or place is victimized more than once by the same type of victimization o Revictimization  Commonly referred to when a person is victimized more than once by any type od victimization but across a relatively wide span of time- such as childhood to adulthood. o Polyvictimization  Another form of recurring victimization- generally used for childhood victimization. o Near-repeat victimization  Occurs when a place is victimized that is close to a place that was previously victimized. Extent of recurring victimization - - Examples from PowerPoint o British crime survey  28% of victims are repeat victims. o NCVS (2016)  21% were series victimizations. o General Social Survey of victimizations (Canada) (2004)  38% of victims experienced recurring victimization. o Intimate partner violence, rape, assault, and property victimization at higher risk of repeat incidents o Strong correlation between sexual victimization in childhood and sexual victimization later in life o Childhood sexual abuse increases the risk of adult sexual victimization. o National violence against women study  Found that women who experienced childhood sexual abuse were six times more likely to be a victim if sex crime by her partner as an adult.  Disproportionate amount of victimization  Small percentage of victims account for large amount of crime due to recurring victimization. o This is found in numerous surveys (British crime survey, East midlands of England survey, General social survey of Canada, and other US studies). Examples from Textbook  READ PAGES 60-61 Crime switch patterns and Victim proneness - - Examples from PowerPoint o The type of incident a person is likely to experience after the initial victimization. o Victims more likely to experience SAME crime if victimized more than once.  A theft victim is likely to experience another theft if victimized a second time.  In a sexual victimization of college students survey, rape was followed by rape and coercion was followed by coercion. Examples from Textbook o READ PAGE 62 Individual level risk factors - - Examples from PowerPoint o Demographic characteristics  Males more likely to be victims repeatedly for all types of victimization except for sexual assault/victimization.  Young more likely to be revictimized.  Single/separated/divorced. o Low socioeconomic and employment status for personal crime o High SES for more risk for property crime o Unemployed more likely to be victimized than employed. o Why these factors (routine activities/lifestyle theory) o Spending time away from home at night o Using public transportation after 6pm o Hanging out with delinquent peers o Engaging in delinquent or dangerous behavior o Alcohol use (esp. for sexual assault) o Mental illness/ psychological/cognitive factors  People with 7-repeat allele of the DRD4 gene are more likely to experience recurring victimization. Examples from Textbook (read pages 63-64) o Demographics o Risky lifestyles o Psychological and cognitive factors Neighborhood/household risk factors - - Examples from PowerPoint o Dangerous neighborhoods  More motivated offenders o Urban neighborhoods  More crime o Neighborhoods with a high number of single parent households  Lower levels of supervision, less capable guardianship o Neighborhood disorder  Low in capable guardianship, low socio-economic status o Low-income household o Children o Multiple cars o Two or more adults in the home o Dangerous neighborhood o Single parent homes Examples from Textbook o Dangerous neighborhoods o High percentage of single parent households o Low-income households o Having children o Having 4 or more cars o Participating in neighborhood watch o Having security devices installed in the home. Theoretical explanations - Examples from PowerPoint o Why do some get revictimized?  Risk heterogeneity explanation (Flag explanation)  Recurring victimization occurs because of the quality or character of a victim. The qualities that initially place a victim at risk will keep the victim at risk if unchanged. o Being a vulnerable target o Consider Brittany’s case again- why was she victimized and what would make this more likely to happen again?  Changed behavior.  Socioeconomic status contributing to decision.  State-dependence Explanation (boost)  The way the victim and offender act during and after the victimization will determine if another victimization occurs, not their qualities.  How the victim and offender act during the victimization will predict risk of becoming a recurrent victim o A victim who uses self-defense is less likely than those who don’t to be victimized again. o Victim learning that they have control/agency over their life. o Offender will learn that victim is not an easy target- capable guardianship.  How the victim acts after the victimization (changes routine, less risk behavior) also impacts revictimization  Theories that allow a better understanding risk heterogeneity and state dependence: o SEE NOTEBOOK FOR EXAMPLES Examples from Textbook o Risk heterogeneity or flag explanation  Focuses on qualities or characteristics of the victim. o State dependence, event dependence, or the boost explanation  It’s not the qualities or characteristics of a victim that are important for recurring victimization so much as what happens during and after the victimization. o Compounding vulnerability  Those with the highest levels of underlying propensity for victimization will be at risk for future victimization because of state dependence processes. o Victimization salience  State dependence processes will be most will be most salient amongst those with lowest underlying risks. o Negative state dependence  Suggests that low-risk persons experience negative state dependence.  - Responses to recurring victimization - Examples from PowerPoint o o o Repeat burglary.  Studies in England have found success with providing funds to burglary victims to secure their homes. Sexual assault victimization responses  “Risk recognition” programs tend to increase likelihood of victim reducing subsequent sexual assaults.  Often delivered on college campuses Intimate partner violence victimization programs  Most programs focus on offenders rather than the victims.  Arresting the offender, anger management, and domestic violence courts  Minneapolis domestic violence experiment does arrest reduce DV victimizations? What about the victim?   Second responder programs o A police officer and victim advocate will revisit an intimate partner violence victim to provide her with information on social and legal programs to assist her.  Have not shown a reduction in subsequent victimizations.