Literary Analysis: 19th-Century American Authors

Study Guide For ENG Lit 2360 8 am Whitman and Dickinson - Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson are two of the most significant poets in American literature, both of whom emerged in the 19th century. Their works reflect a deep engagement with themes such as transcendentalism, individualism, nature, and notions of death and the afterlife. ➢​ Transcendentalism and God - Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the early 19th century, emphasizing the inherent goodness of people and nature. It posits that individuals can transcend the physical world through intuition and spirituality. Whitman’s poetry often embodies this belief in a divine presence within nature and humanity. In his seminal work “Leaves of Grass,” he celebrates the interconnectedness of all life and suggests that God is present in every person and natural element In contrast, Dickinson’s approach to transcendentalism is more introspective. Her poems frequently explore personal spirituality and doubt. While she acknowledges a divine presence, her work often reflects a complex relationship with faith, questioning traditional religious beliefs. For instance, in poems like “I heard a Fly buzz – when I died,” she contemplates mortality while grappling with the concept of an afterlife ➢​ Romanticism - Both poets are deeply rooted in Romanticism, which emphasizes emotion, individual experience, and the beauty of nature. Whitman’s expansive style captures the essence of American democracy and individuality; he embraces a collective human experience while celebrating personal freedom. His use of free verse allows him to express his thoughts fluidly, reflecting the spontaneity associated with Romantic ideals. Dickinson’s Romantic influence manifests through her focus on intense emotions and personal reflection. Her concise yet powerful language conveys profound feelings about love, death, and existence. She often employs slant rhyme and unconventional punctuation to create unique rhythms that enhance her emotional depth. ➢​ Individualism and self-reliance - Individualism is central to both poets’ works but expressed differently. Whitman champions self-reliance through his celebration of the individual as part of a larger whole. He encourages readers to embrace their uniqueness while recognizing their connection to others. This theme is evident in poems like “Song of Myself,” where he asserts that each person’s voice contributes to the collective human experience. Conversely, Dickinson’s exploration of individualism is more introspective. Her poetry often reflects solitude and personal contemplation rather than communal identity. She emphasizes self-reliance through her focus on inner thoughts and feelings rather than societal expectations or norms. ➢​ Role of Nature and Life Cycles - Nature plays a crucial role in both poets’ works but serves different purposes. For Whitman, nature is a source of inspiration and spiritual connection; it symbolizes freedom, growth, and renewal. He often uses natural imagery to convey themes of unity among all living things In contrast, Dickinson’s relationship with nature is more complex; she frequently explores its darker aspects alongside its beauty. Her poems reflect an awareness of life cycles—birth, decay, death—and how these cycles inform human existence. For example, her poem “A Bird came down the Walk” illustrates both the beauty and brutality found in nature. ➢​ Notions about death and the afterlife - Death is a recurring theme in both poets’ works but approached from different angles. Whitman’s perspective on death tends to be celebratory; he views it as a natural part of life’s cycle rather than something to fear. In “Leaves of Grass,” he suggests that death leads to rebirth—a continuation rather than an end On the other hand, Dickinson’s treatment of death is more ambiguous; she often expresses fear or uncertainty regarding what lies beyond life. Her poems frequently depict death as an intimate encounter rather than an abstract concept—illustrating her fascination with mortality while grappling with existential questions about what follows after life ends Chopin and Gilman - Chopin and Gilman are two prominent authors known for their exploration of women’s roles in society, particularly during the late 19th century. Kate Chopin is best known for her novel “The Awakening,” which delves into themes of female identity and independence. Charlotte Perkins Gilman is renowned for her short story “The Yellow Wallpaper,” which critiques the medical treatment of women and explores mental health issues ➢​ Tenets of Cult of True Womanhood - The Cult of True Womanhood, also known as the Cult of Domesticity, was a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes in the 19th century. It emphasized four main tenets: 1.​ 2.​ 3.​ 4.​ ➢​ ➢​ 1.​ 2.​ 3.​ Piety: Women were expected to be religious and moral figures within the home. Purity: Sexual purity was paramount; women were seen as guardians of virtue. Submissiveness: Women were to be submissive to their husbands and male authority. Domesticity: The ideal woman was a homemaker, responsible for creating a nurturing environment. Rest Cure - The Rest Cure was a treatment prescribed primarily to women in the late 19th century, particularly for conditions like hysteria or depression. Developed by Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell, it involved isolation from intellectual stimulation and enforced bed rest. This treatment is famously critiqued in Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper,” where the protagonist’s confinement exacerbates her mental health issues rather than alleviating them. Various types of literary irony - Literary irony can be categorized into several types: Verbal Irony: A speaker says one thing but means another (e.g., sarcasm). Situational Irony: An outcome that is contrary to what was expected occurs (e.g., a fire station burns down). Dramatic Irony: The audience knows something that the characters do not (e.g., in tragedies where fate leads characters to their doom). Both Chopin and Gilman utilize irony to highlight societal contradictions regarding women’s roles. ➢​ Gothicism (theme, place, character, events) - Theme ➢​ Gothicism often explores themes such as madness, isolation, and the supernatural, reflecting societal anxieties. Place ➢​ Settings in Gothic literature are typically dark, mysterious, or decaying—often featuring haunted houses or remote locations that evoke fear. Character ➢​ Characters may include tortured souls, madwomen, or oppressive patriarchs who embody societal constraints on women. Events ➢​ Gothic events often involve psychological horror or physical confinement, as seen in “The Yellow Wallpaper,” where the protagonist’s descent into madness parallels her physical entrapment. James - Henry James is another significant author whose works often explore complex psychological states and social dynamics. His narratives frequently feature ambiguous endings that leave readers questioning character motivations and moral implications. ➢​ Gothicism (theme, place, character, events) ➢​ Ambiguity - Ambiguity in literature refers to situations where meanings are unclear or open to interpretation. Both Chopin’s and Gilman’s works employ ambiguity to reflect the complexities of women’s experiences within restrictive societal frameworks. ➢​ Perception - Perception plays a crucial role in how characters understand themselves and their environments. In “The Yellow Wallpaper,” for example, the protagonist’s perception deteriorates as she becomes increasingly isolated, leading her to identify with the wallpaper itself—a symbol of her confinement ➢​ Governess’ motivations - In literary contexts involving governesses (such as in some works by Henry James), motivations can range from financial necessity to personal ambition or desire for independence. Governesses often navigate complex relationships with both children and employers while grappling with their own societal limitations. ➢​ The children’s behavior - Children’s behavior in literature can serve various functions—reflecting innocence or complicity in adult conflicts. In stories featuring governesses, children’s actions may reveal deeper truths about family dynamics or societal expectations placed upon them by adults. Washington and DuBois - The discourse surrounding the philosophies of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois represents a pivotal moment in African American history, particularly in the context of post-Reconstruction America. Their differing approaches to racial uplift, economic security, and social reform have had lasting implications on civil rights movements. ➢​ Atlanta Compromise - The Atlanta Compromise was a speech delivered by Booker T. Washington in 1895 at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia. In this address, Washington advocated for a strategy of accommodation rather than confrontation regarding racial issues. He emphasized vocational education and economic self-reliance for African Americans as a means to gain respect from white society. Washington believed that by proving their economic value, African Americans would gradually earn civil rights and social acceptance. ➢​ Economic security leads to political/social inclusion/reformation - Washington’s philosophy hinged on the idea that economic security was foundational for achieving political and social inclusion. He argued that if African Americans could secure jobs and become economically independent, they would be able to demand their rights more effectively over time. This perspective suggested that social reformation would follow economic empowerment; thus, he prioritized industrial education over liberal arts education. ➢​ Hand imagery - In his speeches and writings, Washington often employed hand imagery, symbolizing labor and craftsmanship as pathways to dignity and respectability for African Americans. The metaphor of hands working diligently reflected his belief in the importance of manual labor as a means of achieving self-sufficiency. ➢​ Voting tests - Contrastingly, W.E.B. Du Bois vehemently opposed Washington’s approach. Du Bois argued that political rights were essential for true equality and should not be sacrificed for economic gains. He highlighted the injustices of voting tests, which were used to disenfranchise Black voters through literacy tests, poll taxes, and other discriminatory practices designed to maintain white supremacy. ➢​ Color line - Du Bois introduced the concept of the color line, referring to the societal division between races that perpetuated inequality. He believed that addressing this color line was crucial for achieving true equality; thus, he called for immediate civil rights activism rather than gradualism. ➢​ Veil - Another significant concept introduced by Du Bois is the veil, which symbolizes the separation between Black people and white society. The veil represents both physical segregation and psychological barriers faced by African Americans who lived with dual identities—one as an American citizen and another as a marginalized individual due to their race. ➢​ Double-consciousness - Du Bois also articulated the notion of double-consciousness, which describes the internal conflict experienced by subordinated groups in an oppressive society. For African Americans, this meant navigating their identity within a society that devalued them while simultaneously striving for self-acceptance. ➢​ Failure of double aims - Du Bois criticized what he termed the failure of double aims—the inability to achieve both economic success and civil rights simultaneously under Washington’s model. He believed that prioritizing economic advancement at the expense of political rights ultimately undermined efforts toward full equality. ➢​ Refutation of Washington - In essence, Du Bois’s arguments served as a direct refutation of Washington’s ideology. While Washington promoted patience and gradualism through vocational training, Du Bois championed immediate action towards civil rights through higher education, political engagement, and activism via organizations like the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People).