Chapter 4 Bio-Psychosocial Theories

CHAPTER 4 BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES Learning Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: Introduction: Bio-Psychosocial theories are frameworks used to understand human behavior and health by integrating biological, psychological, and social factors. They suggest that an individual's health and well-being are influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social elements rather than any one factor in isolation. These theories consider genetics, brain function, cognition, emotions, social relationships, culture, environment, and more when explaining human behavior and health outcomes. The Biopsychosocial Model The biopsychosocial model reflects the development of illness through the complex interaction of biological factors, psychological factors, and social factors. Examples include: a. a person may have a genetic predisposition for depression, but they must have social factors, such as extreme stress at work and family life, as well as psychological factors, such as a perfectionistic tendency, to trigger this genetic code for depression; b. a person may have a genetic predisposition for a disease, but social and cognitive factors must trigger the illness. Engel revolutionized medical thinking by reintroducing the idea of mind/body dualism (René Descartes) that was forgotten during the biomedical approach. because of that, Engel and Romano’s publication on the biopsychosocial model was adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2002 as a basis for the International Classification of Function (ICF). The biopsychosocial model is still widely used as a psychological model. The biological, psychological, and social categories have expanded into bigger categories: specifically, the social aspect has greatly expanded through ideas such as spirituality and culture. Even if all aspects do not apply to the situation, the biopsychosocial model is widely used to organize one’s thoughts. It shows that a person’s problems are all connected, and they may be more complex than previously imagined. This medical model was surprisingly presented earlier in 1972 by Juan B. Cortes and Florence M. Gatti (5 years earlier from the work of Engel’s and Romano, 1977) linking all the theories of crime causation into one basket, calling it “BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH”. On the basis of numerous empirical studies, Cortes and Gatti construct a biopsychosocial theory of criminal behavior from which they draw a series of conclusions about methods for the prevention and control of delinquency (although the word biopsychosocial was already used in psychology and in the study of victimology in the 1940s). The chapters on “empirical criminology” report the results of investigations on the relationships between delinquency, on the one hand, and physique, temperament, need for achievement, intrinsic religiosity, discipline, and affection, on the other. Comparing samples of delinquents and non-delinquents, Cortes and Gatti argue that the former (delinquents) is higher in mesomorphy, activity, aggressivity, impulsiveness, and need for achievement, and lower in religiousness, parental discipline, and parental affection. Many of the findings in the book of Cortes and Gatti merely confirm the conclusions of earlier studies. However, given the criticisms of previous research on the relationships between constitutional factors and crime, this additional demonstration of an association between delinquency and body build is valuable. The authors are cautious in their attempts to interpret this association, pointing out that future work on this problem must concentrate on the biochemical and physiological underpinnings of the basic physical types and criminal behavior in order to deepen our understanding of the causal pathways involved. While much of the discussion about the effects of family environment on delinquency seems reasonable, the evidence offered is often less than persuasive because of weaknesses in the research design of the various sociological studies during that time. To give one example, surely the fact that the interviewer was a priest had a differential influence on the responses of non-delinquents who were students at a Catholic school and delinquents who were not attending such a school, particularly with respect to questions about religiosity. Alternative explanations, indeed, could be given for many of the empirical findings in the writing of Cortes and Gatti. “Theoretical criminology” is the central concern of two chapters in which several sociogenic and psychogenic theories are criticized and in which the authors outline their biopsychosocial theory. A. PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES OF CRIMES Three (3) Psyche of Personality a. Id - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The id contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure. b. Ego - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of the personality and it acts to keep the id in check. c. Superego - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. This part of the personality contains the conscience of the individual. 1. Electra Complex - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of her mother. 2. Freudian - This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be traced back to a conflict in early childhood. 3. Oedipus Complex - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred and fear of his father. 4. Personality Theory - This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation seeking. 5. Psychoanalytic Theory - A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be found in the mind of the individual. 6. Psychological Counseling - The process by which an underlying mental issue can be addressed. The assumptions are that only by treating an individual who has committed a criminal act as someone who is sick and in need of treatment can the problem truly be addressed; punishing the criminal act without addressing the root mental cause is of little or no value; and counseling is the only way in which the root mental cause can be dealt with adequately. 7. Psychological Theory - A general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning, development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts. Under this approach, the criminal act itself is only important in that it highlights an underlying mental issue. Psychopathic Theory Psychopathic - A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality disorders. Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R) - Developed by HARE, this is a tool comprised of a check list that is designed to measure the feeling and relationships of an individual, along with the social deviance of an individual. This tool is the main one used in the measurement of a psychopathic personality. B. BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF CRIMES 1. Adoption Studies - Studies that have been done with children reared by biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents in an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal behavior. Results have been mixed. 2. Atavism - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a “born criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution, and will commit crimes against society unless specifically restrained from doing so. 3. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - Mednick’s theory that individuals who inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learn to control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. This leads to increased violence and criminal activity. 4. Behavioral Genetics - This covers a range of theories in which a combination of genetics and the environment influence behavior. 5. Biological School - A view of crime also referred to as biological positivism that claims that criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or abnormalities. This view directly conflicts with classical criminology, which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological perspective, deterrence is of little value. 6. Biosocial Theories - Theories that examine the combined effects of biology, behavior, and the environment on criminal behavior. 7. Biosocial Arousal Theory - This theory states that an individual’s level of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with aggression and violence and thus are more prone to commit crime. 8. Born Criminal - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. This type of criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identified through their stigmata or identifying characteristics. 9. Concordance - This examines the degree to which criminal or lawabiding behavior of siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another. 10. Criminaloid - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The criminaloid is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the proper circumstances. 11. Determinism - In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the view that an individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic inheritance or biological predisposition. Soft determinism, as explained by Matza, examines the role of determinism, but also acknowledges that other factors, from environmental to choice, may be part of the equation. This assumes that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic or biological makeup. 12. Evolutionary Theory - A broad-based view that certain types of criminal behavior are genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival. 13. Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory - A general approach that suggests that the process of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from generation to generation. 14. Stigmata - Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to identify the “born criminal.” They include things such as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears. 15. Physiognomy - According to Vold and Snipe (2000), physiognomy deals with making judgement about people’s character form appearance of their faces. In 1775, Johan Caspar Lavater (1741-1801), a Swiss scholar a theologian published a book “Physiognomical Fragments” which received nearly favorable attention. 16. Phrenology - According to Hagan (2017), phrenology is a pseudoscience that claim to determine personality and intelligence on the basis of the size and shape of a person’s skull and was popular from the mid – 700s to the mid -1800s. In other words, this theory focused on the external shape of the skull instead of the appearance of the face, Phrenologist assumed that the exterior of the skull conformed to its interior and therefore to the shape of the brain. 17. Constitutional Theories - Constitutional theories are those that explain criminality by reference to offender's body types, genetics or external observable physical characteristics. C. SOCIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF CRIMES I. Social Learning Theory - In general, social learning theory proposes that both criminal and conforming behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social influences such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation. One of the four main concepts of AKERS’ SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY The process through which an individual rationalizes, evaluates, and assigns right and wrong. Definitions of the law may be general or specific. One may have the general view that the law needs to be obeyed, but a specific view that a 20-yearold who can fight in a war should be allowed to drink a beer. This person may follow the law in general, but violate the liquor law. 1. Behavior Theory - Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and included elements of behavior theory and behavior modification. This expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and included elements such as operant behavior, respondent conditioning, discriminative stimuli, and schedules of reinforcement. 2. Differential Association - A theory of crime and delinquency developed by Sutherland. This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those with whom we interact. Also, one of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory. Akers retains the process of differential association, and expands upon it in his theory. 3. Differential Identification - A modification of differential association theory. In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important people in their lives. 4. Differential Reinforcement - One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory. The concept refers to the potential rewards and punishments for committing or not committing a criminal or deviant act. This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that have been received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments. 5. Discriminative Stimuli - Internal or external factors or cues that aid an individual in determining an appropriate response to a given situation. 6. Imitation - One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory. Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by that individual. Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along with perceived risks and rewards, will factor into the imitation decision. 7. Positive Reinforcement - This refers to an individual receiving something of value for committing a certain act. This may include things such as money, food, or approval. 8. Negative Reinforcement - This refers to an individual escaping something painful such as a punishment or reprimand by committing a certain act. 9. Neutralizing Definitions - This type of definition helps a person justify committing a crime by making it seem that although the act itself might be wrong, under certain conditions it is all right. 10. Operant Conditioning - The view that voluntary actions and decisions made by an individual are influenced and shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external world. 11. Retroflexive Reformation - This process is based upon differential association and often takes place in a group setting working with both offenders and non-offenders. This concept suggests that the offenders in such groups, who join on the side of the non-offenders in attempting to get the other offenders to change their definitions favorable to law violation, actually wind up reducing their own definitions favorable to crime. 12. Self-Reinforcement - The exercise of self-control used by an individual to reinforce his or her own behavior, by seeing that behavior through the eyes of another. 13. Social Reinforcement - This refers to the actual, perceived, expected, tangible, or intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon an individual by society or a subset of society. 14. Social Structure and Social Learning Model - A model proposed by Akers in which social structural factors have an indirect effect on an individual’s actions through the social learning process. 15. Symbolic Interactionism - The process by which two or more individuals share a commonly understood language or set of symbols. All individuals have the ability to incorporate other people’s reactions into their own behavior, and use those reactions as part of their own understanding of themselves. Example: You want to know how you look in a new outfit. Part of your understanding of how you look is going to be based upon how others respond to you. You have the ability to understand other people’s facial reactions, body language, and language in understanding how they view you. You then use this information when deciding if you look good in the outfit. Social Bonding and Control Theories Social Bonding Theory - A control theory that states that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society are weakened or have broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are strong, an individual will refrain from criminal activity. A. Social Control - Under a control theory perspective, social control refers to those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal or deviant act. Examples include the family, church, and school. B. Self-Concept - An element of containment theory thought to be responsible for insulating an individual from criminal activity. This is Similar to self-esteem. C. Self-Control Theory - A specific type of control theory developed by GOTTFREDSON and HIRSCHI in which self-control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts. 1. Containment Theory - A control theory in which the inner and outer pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless they are constrained or counteracted by inner and outer containment measures. 2. Control Theories - A classification of theories that claim to ask not why do people commit criminal acts, but why do they not commit criminal acts? These theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts, and seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so. 3. Delinquent Subculture - A group of delinquent peers which may influence an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive approval from the group. This concept works in conjunction with control theory and may pull an individual towards delinquency. 4. Drift Theory - This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social control are weak. When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float back to law abiding behavior. 5. External Control - A concept in control theory in which agents outside the control of the individual are responsible for keeping that individual from committing criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents, teachers, or law enforcement. 6. Internal Control - A concept in control theory which explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the person internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such things as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others. 7. Natural Motivation - This refers to the belief in control theories that the desire to commit criminal acts is uniform and spread evenly across society. Definition of Labeling Theories To The Explanation Of The Causation Of Criminality Labeling Theory - The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts. Restorative Justice - This refers to programs which are designed to make offenders take responsibility for their actions and restore them and their victims, as much as possible, back to things as they existed before the offense. Often offenders will apologize to the victims and to the community, and attempt to financially compensate the victims for their losses. 1. Deinstitutionalization - The removal of juveniles from jails, detention centers, and institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when possible removing status and minor offenders from the juvenile justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion. 2. Disintegrative Shaming - The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual. This occurs without an attempt after the offenders have been punished to reconcile them with or restore them to the larger community. 3. Diversion Movement - This refers to all those efforts to divert individuals, primarily youth but also adults who are suspected of or have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal process of the juvenile or adult justice system. The intent is to reduce the stigma of formal delinquent or criminal labels on the individuals and to reduce or avoid the costs of formal processing of the crime. 4. Faith-Based Programs - These are religiously based programs which can be operated within the institution or the larger community. They can be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual beliefs and values to change offenders’ attitudes and behaviors. 5. Net Widening - A problem that occurs when offenders who would have been released from the system are placed in a program simply because a program exists. This often occurs in diversion programs. Boot camps may be a viable option to keep kids out of institutions, but it becomes net widening when kids, who otherwise would have been sent home, are sent to boot camps. 6. Primary Deviance - Deviant acts that are committed in the absence of or preceding the application of a deviant label for the acts. While it may or may not be the first crime a person has committed, it is not based on a response to being labeled as a deviant (see Secondary Deviance). 7. Secondary Deviance - Criminal or deviant acts those are committed in response to, or because of, a label that has been applied to an individual. 8. Reintegrative Shaming - The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act, but done in a way that the individual who is shamed is brought back into the larger community and restored to a position of respectability. Social Disorganization, Anomie, And Strain Theories Anomie - A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The term was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later applied by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in American society. Social Disorganization - Social disorganization refers to the breakdown in traditional social control and organization in the society, community, neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity results. It is most often applied to urban crime. Institutional Anomie - This theory was created by MESSNER AND ROSENFELD. The premise of the theory is that American society is set up in such a way so as to give prestige and priority to economic institutions. This means that the accumulation of wealth and individual success are people’s highest priorities. Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of other social institutions (family, education, government) to control crime that occurs in response to the lack of access to or failure in the economic sphere. Therefore, a high level of criminal activity is a natural result of the setup of American society. Merton’s Anomie Theory - This version of anomie theory looks at American society, and what happens when an individual realizes that not everyone can achieve the American dream of equal opportunity for economic success. When this happens, one of five adaptations will occur. The conformist accepts the goals of society, and the means for achieving them: the college student. The innovator accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of achieving them: the drug dealer. The mode of rebellion refers to one who rejects both the goals and means of society, and wants to replace them with new goals and means: the militia member. The retreatist gives up on both the goals and means, and withdraws from society: the alcoholic. Finally, the ritualist rejects the goals, and accepts the means: this person has given up on the promotion, nice car, etc., and simply punches the time clock to keep what they have. 1. Differential Opportunity - A theory which draws from anomie and the work of MERTON AND COHEN; the SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY of SHAW and MCKAY; and the DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY of SUTHERLAND. This view says that although one may be denied legitimate opportunity that does not mean that one has access to illegitimate opportunity. Although deprivation and strain can and do play a role, one learns a good or bad response to that strain depending on the available opportunities and role models, legitimate or illegitimate. THREE (3) GROUPS EXIST UNDER DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY THIS PERSPECTIVE OF 1. The First Is Criminal - In criminal groups, juveniles are organized, and the primary goal of the activity is to make money. A lack of legitimate means has been replaced by illegitimate ones, such as theft or extortion. 2. The Second Group Is The Conflict Group - In this group, there are few legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. These groups are found primarily in poor socially disorganized neighborhoods. As a result, toughness and fighting are the primary goals. 3. The Final Group Is The Retreatist - This group cannot fight well, or profit from their crimes. They are the double-losers. 2. Focal Concerns Of The Lower-Class Culture - The list of focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males was developed by MILLER to describe the behavior of street corner groups or gangs. According to MILLER, the behavior of these juveniles was an adaptation to lower class culture. This culture valued THINGS SUCH AS: A. Trouble, B. Toughness, C. Smartness D. Excitement E. Fatalism F. and autonomy. 3. General Strain Theory Of Crime And Delinquency - A micro-level social psychological revision of Agnew’s strain theory. According to this theory, criminal and deviant acts are one possible adaptation to stress. THE THREE (3) MAJOR TYPES OF DEVIANCE-PRODUCING STRAIN ARE: 1. Failure to achieve positively valued goals 2. Removal of positively valued stimuli, and 3. Confrontation with negative stimuli. Deviance is most likely to occur when the response of the individual to any of these stressors is anger. Factors such as peer associations, beliefs, and attributions of causes, self-control, and self-efficacy will affect each individual’s reaction to stress. COHEN is in agreement with MERTON that blocked goals produce STRAIN; his theory looks at status as opposed to material gain. Under this perspective, juveniles are measured against the standard of the middle class. Lower-class kids, who cannot meet the middle-class standards of dress, talk, and manners are, in a sense, deprived. This ‘status deprivation’ leads to ‘status frustration,’ which in turn causes deviant and criminal acts. Instead of five groups like Merton proposes, Cohen sees only one group—a conflict group which values toughness, fighting, and respect. 4. Urban Ecology Theory - A theory that views a city as analogous to the natural ecological community of plants and animals. This relationship is understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from the center to the outer regions of a city. This work done by PARK and BURGESS influenced the social disorganization theory developed by SHAW and MCKAY. 5. COLLECTIVE EFFICACY - This refers to the actual or perceived ability of the residents of a given neighborhood to maintain informal social control over the criminal or deviant behavior of other residents. This would have the effect of keeping crime rates lower. 6. CHICAGO AREA PROJECTS - This was the first large-scale urban delinquency prevention program. Started by Shaw and McKay in the 1930s, it used their social disorganization theory as a core. Cohen’s Anomie Strain. This version of anomie theory examines juveniles. CONFLICT THEORY DEFINITION OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY CONFLICT THEORY - The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most power makes the laws and controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their behavior which is now viewed as criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both law and criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts defined as criminal). 1. CONSENSUS THEORY - In general, this theory states that laws are a result of, and a reflection of, general agreement in society. Views of right and wrong, which can be reflected through folkways and mores, influence the laws and rules which govern a society. 2. FUNCTIONALIST THEORY - Similar to consensus theory, but this theory also looks at how the law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society; and how it acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful. The law also serves a symbolic function and discourages deviant behavior. 3. INTEREST GROUPS - These groups form and act in such a manner so as to influence the political system in ways that will provide the greatest benefits to members of the group. They are also referred to as pressure groups. 4. LAW - Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power of the state. Depending upon one’s view, law is either formed with the agreement of the majority of society and designed to promote order, or formed by the powerful in society to keep control of the masses. 5. PLURALISTIC CONFLICT - A type of conflict perspective which emphasizes that instead of one centralized, all-powerful group making the rules, there are several power groups, both formal and informal and often with overlapping interests, which wrestle for control and power. 6. POLITICAL CRIMES - Crimes committed by radical groups to overthrow a government or overturn a government action; or crimes committed by government officials to control groups seen as a threat. Which side in any given conflict is labeled radical, depends upon which side one supports and which side wins the dispute. 7. RACIAL PROFILING - Actions taken by the police based solely on the race of an individual. 8. SOCIAL CONTROL - A normative system with rules concerning the way people should and should not behave. This is combined with a formal and punishing deviance. Informal social control is exhibited by the family, church, and school, while formal social control is exhibited by the police and the courts. 9. SOCIAL THREAT HYPOTHESIS - This hypothesis states that criminal and deviant acts will increase as the number of people opposed to the interests of the powerful increases. MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES MARXIST THEORY - This theory explains both law and criminal justice, and focuses upon the division between the ruling-class elite and the laborers. In a capitalist society, the ruling-class elite (bourgeoisie) control the means of production which allows them to control the political state as well. They use this control to manipulate the laborers (proletariat) and keep them in a position of powerlessness. The masses are thus controlled both economically and legally. STRUCTURALIST MARXISM - While close to the view of Instrumental Marxism, this perspective states that the political state is not under the total control of the ruling elite; that from time to time, laws may be passed that harm the ruling elite; and that their members, on occasion, may be subject to state control. 1. BOURGEOIS - The ruling-class elite in a capitalist system; those with the power. 2. PROLETARIAT - The working class or laborers in a capitalist society; those with no power. 3. CAPITALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of production are held privately in the hands of a few. 4. SOCIALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of production are held by the state for the benefit of all. 5. CONSTITUTIVE CRIMINOLOGY - A variation of critical criminology, which recommends that we the search for the cause of criminal activity. Instead, it examines how the relationships between criminals, victims, and agents of control act and react to form our understanding of crime. 6. CRIMES OF ACCOMMODATION AND RESISTANCE - Crimes committed by the lower class against the upper class, or the capitalist system. 7. CRIMES OF DOMINATION AND REPRESSION - Crimes committed by the ruling class against the lower class. 8. CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY - An extension of Marxist theory that goes beyond the examination of the effects of capitalism on crime. It takes a critical stance against mainstream criminology. 9. LEFT REALISM - A variation of critical criminology. While this perspective examines the role capitalism plays in society, it also recognizes the impact, damage, and fear caused by traditional street crime. It proposes reforms to the system that would deal with these crimes, assist the victims, reduce the use of prisons, and reduce crime as a whole. This perspective rejects both the conservative and choice perspective of the right, and the tendency of the left to overlook or disregard the true damage caused by crime. 10. INSTRUMENTAL MARXISM - The political state (including the law and the criminal justice system) is always and only a tool of the capitalist class to oppress the working class. 11. PEACEMAKING CRIMINOLOGY - This perspective is often viewed as a philosophy as opposed to a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not contain a religious core. In essence, it is an attempt to get all players in society (victims, offenders, and criminal justice agents) to recognize and reduce the violence that is at the heart of the society and the system. The violence can then be replaced with non-violent solutions. 12. POSTMODERNISM - Closely related to critical criminology, his perspective seeks to discover and eliminate the power of language and text which is used to give power and privilege to specific groups, while denying it to others. This perspective also seeks to eliminate reliance on testable scientific explanations of criminology, and replace it with a language-based perspective that recognizes and advances the cause of disadvantaged individuals.