Chapter 3 Sociological and Economic Theories

CHAPTER 3 SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC THEORIES Learning Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: 1. Grasp how societal structures, institutions, norms, and cultures infl uence individual behavior, identity formation, and interactions. 2. Explore theories of stratifi cation, social class, race, gender, and ethnicity to comprehend the origins and eff ects of societal inequalities. 3. Investigate how societies evolve, change, and adapt over time, examining the factors and mechanisms driving social transformations. 4. Apply sociological theories to contemporary issues like globalization, urbanization, social movements, and technological advancements. 5. Develop the ability to critically analyze social theories, considering their applicability, limitations, and implications for understanding diverse social phenomena. 6. Explore diff erent economic systems (capitalism, socialism, etc.) and theories (such as Keynesian, neoclassical, behavioral economics) to comprehend how resources are allocated and distributed in societies. 7. Investigate how markets function, studying concepts like supply and demand, market failures, pricing mechanisms, and consumer behavior. 8. Understand how economic theories inform policy-making in areas like fi scal policy, monetary policy, trade, labor, and welfare, and their impact on societies. 9. Explore theories concerning globalization, international trade, development economics, and their eff ects on national and international economic landscapes. 10. Develop critical thinking skills to evaluate economic theories, considering their eff ectiveness in achieving economic growth, effi ciency, and equity within societies. INTRODUCTION Sociological theories examine how society shapes human behavior, interactions, and institutions, while economic theories explore the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within societies. Both fields offer frameworks to understand complex social structures, behaviors, and systems that impact individuals and communities. Sociological theories delve into social phenomena, while economic theories focus on resource allocation and market dynamics, contributing to a broader comprehension of how societies function and evolve. A. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES Sociological factors refer to things, places and people with whom we come in contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct. These causes may bring about the development of criminal behavior. Sociology – the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as a whole. It is primarily based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to crime. Variables such as socio-economic status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural groups of people are probed in relation to the environmental factors that are most conducive to criminal action, such as time, place, and circumstances surrounding the crime. Sociological Factors - refer to things, places and people with whom we come in contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct. These causes may bring about the development of criminal behavior Anomie (B – A – N) - is a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. This is characterized by breakdown of social order, absence of social norms and normlessness. NOTE: LOGOMACY – A statement that we would have no crime if we have no criminal laws and that we could eliminate all crime merely by abolishing all criminal laws. a. David Emile Durkheim or Emile Durkheim - He stated that crime is a normal part of the society just like birth and death. - He proposed the concept of “anomie” or the absence of social norms. It is characterized by disorder due to lack of common values shared by individuals lack of respect for authority, lack of appreciation for what is acceptable and not acceptable in a society and lack of social regulations in modern societies. b. Gabriel Tarde - He introduced the theory of imitation which proposes the process by which people become criminals. - According to this theory, individuals imitate the behavior of other individuals based on the degree of their association with other individuals and it is inferior or weak who tend to imitate the superior and strong. Suggesto-Imitative Assaults - A term coined by Gabriel Tarde to describe crime in terms of imitative behavior. As part of a general theory of crime it depicts crime as socially learned behavior which propagates through society via both the media and interpersonal communication. COPYCAT CRIME - A copycat crime is a criminal act that is modeled or inspired by a previous crime that has been reported in the media or described in fiction. c. Adolphe Quetelet and Andre Michael Guerry  He repudiated the free will doctrine of the classicists.  He is a founder of cartographic school of criminology.  He is a founder of moral statistics.  First Scientific Criminologist  Father of Modern Sociological and Psychological Statistics  Thermic Law (Temperature and Crime) - Cartographic school of criminology made use of statistical data such as population, age, gender, occupation, religious affiliations and social economic status and studies their influences and relationship to criminality. It also states that crimes against person increase during summer and crimes against property increase during winter. “Thermic Law” Of Crime - Observed that crimes against persons increase in warmer climates while property crimes are most prevalent in colder climates (Fox, 1976, p. 64). Robert Ezra Park (1864 - 1944) - He advocated the “Human Ecology Theory”. Human Ecology is the study of the interrelationship of people and their environment. This theory maintains that crime is a function of social change that occurs along with environmental change. It also maintains that the isolation, segregation, competition, conflict, social contract, interaction and social hierarchy of people are the major influences of criminal behavior and crimes. Concentric Zone TheorY - A diagram of the ecological structure which, in the words of its author, ‘represents an ideal construction of the tendencies of any city to expand radially from its central business district’ (Park and E. Burgess, 1925). The theory posits concentric zones round the central area, defined by their residential composition, moving from the very poor and socially deviant, in the inner zone of transition, to a peripheral suburban commuter ring. MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION - Environmental factors such as the kind of rearing or family upbringing, quality of teaching in school, influences of peers and friends, conditions of the neighborhood, and economic and other societal factors are believed to be contributory to crime and criminal behavior. Chicago school - arose in the early 20th century, through the work of Robert Park, Ernest Burgess and other urban sociologist at the university of Chicago. Park and Burgess identified five concentric zones that often exist as cities grow, including the zone in transition which was identified as most volatile and subject to disorder. 1. SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES - These refer not only to the physical features of the communities but also to the way society is organized. - These include such things as level of poverty and unemployment and the amount of crowded housing which are believed to affect behavior and attitudes of individuals which in turn contribute to their commission of crimes. - Also called social environment - These include social disorganization theory, strain theory and cultural deviance theory. a. Social Disorganization Theory - This was popularized by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay. - According to this theory, crimes in urban areas are more prevalent because residents have impersonal relationships with each other. - Increase in the number of broken families and single parenthood are also very common in disorganized communities. - Another feature of disorganized community is poverty as evidenced by poor living conditions such as rundown houses, unsanitary and unsightly streets and high unemployment rates. b. Strain Theory by Robert King Merton or Robert Merton - Strain refers to the individual’s frustration, anger and resentment. - It holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to legally obtain them. This also argues that the ability to obtain these goals is class dependent; members of the lower class are unable to achieve these goals which come easily to those belonging to the upper class. Consequently, they feel anger, frustration and resentment, failure of a man to achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for those status/goals to be attained referred to as STRAIN. Four possible adaptation to strain: Innovation - The innovator buys into the culturally approved goals of society but pursues them through unacceptable means. Ritualism - This describes a person who, over time, abandonsthe goal of financial success. Despite this, they continue to embrace the accepted means. Retreatism – A retreatist is a social dropout. This type of person will not resort to illegitimate means to achieve widely shared goals. This individual simply withdraws from society. Rebellion – These are individuals who oppose both culturally dominant goals and the means to achieve these goals. The rebel seeks to establish a new social order and embraces a different cultural goal. c. Cultural Deviance Theory - It gives emphasis on the concept of culture and sub-culture. - According to this theory, people in the lower class feel isolated due to extreme deprivation or poverty. They tend to create a sub-culture with its own set of rules and values. This is characterized by deviant behavior which results in criminal behavior among its members. Culture Conflict Theory - Different Groups learn different conduct norms and that the conduct norms of some groups may clash with conventional middle-class rules. It defines what is considered appropriate or normal behavior and what inappropriate or abnormal behavior is and considered as the source of delinquent behaviors. Sub-culture Theory by Albert Cohen - He claims that lower class cannot socialize effectively as the middleclass behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered together to share their common values/problems forming a sub-culture that rejects middleclass values. Differential Opportunity Theory by Lloyd Ohlin - It explains that society leads the lower class to want things and society does things to people. 1. SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES (Social Learning) - These refer to a group of theories which points to the individual’s socialization process as the cause for the commission of crimes. These theories cite interaction with people and experiences and exposure to different elements in the environment as primary factors to criminality. - Under this theory is the social learning theory which in turn has three (3) sub-theories: differential association theory; differential reinforcement theory; and neutralization theory. a. Differential Association Theory - This was formulated by Edwin Sutherland - his theory states that criminal behavior is learned through socialization. - Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. b. Differential Reinforcement Theory - According to this theory, individual’s behavior depends on how people around him react towards his behavior. - An act that is rewarded is repeated; an act that is punished will be avoided. c. Neutralization Theory - This was introduced by David Matza and Gresham Sykes. - Sometimes referred to as “drift theory” - According to this theory, people know when they are doing something wrong. However, they rationalize and justify their actions. This rationalizing is what we called “neutralization”. Denial of Responsibility – It shifts the blame for a deviant act away from the actor. Denial of Injury – It is an offender’s claim that no “real” offense occurred because no one was harmed. Denial of Victim – It implies that the victim got what he or she deserved. Condemnation of the Condemners – Involves attempts by the offender to share guilt with the condemners by asserting that their behaviors are just bad as his or hers. Appeal to Higher Loyalties – Elevates the offender’s moral integrity by claiming altruistic motives. 2. SOCIAL REACTION THEORY - This is more commonly called “labeling theory”. - It states that people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity. 1. FRANK TENNEMBAUM – He made the earliest statements of latter-day labeling theory. He describes the process of defining deviant behavior as different among juvenile delinquents and conventional society, causing a "tagging" of juveniles as delinquent by mainstream society. The stigma that accompanies the deviant "tag" causes a person fall into deeper non-conformity. 2. ERWIN LEMERT – founder of the "Societal Reaction" theory. This theory explores the journey to social deviance in two stages; primary deviance and secondary deviance which are both incorporated into Labeling Theory as well. 3. HOWARD BECKER - hailed as the founder of modern labeling theory. He proposes that this label becomes a person’s master status, meaning that this is a constant label, affecting and over-riding how others will view them. 4. GEORGE HERBERT MEAD - One of the founders of Social Interactionism. Believed that people are compelled to see themselves as society perceives them to be. TAGGING - like labeling, the process whereby an individual is negatively defined by agencies of justice. 3. SOCIAL CONTROL THEORIES - Maintain that everyone has the potential to become criminal but most people are controlled by their bonds to society. - Social control refers to the agencies of social control such as family, school, religion or church, government and laws and other identified authorities in society. - There are two (2) sub-theories: containment theory and social bond theory. a. Containment Theory - It was proposed by Walter Reckless - He stated that inner and outer containments help prevent juvenile offending. - Containment means the forces within and outside the individual that has the power to influence his actions. - Inner containments include positive self-concept, tolerance for frustration and an ability to set realistic goals. - Outer containments include family. b. Social Bond Theory (B-I-A-C) - This was propagated by Travis Hirschi - This theory views crime as a result of individuals with weakened bonds to social institutions. - According to this theory, there are four (4) elements of social bonds: attachment; commitment; involvement and belief.  Belief – refers to acceptance of the norms of conventional society  Involvement – refers to the amount of time an individual spends on a conventional pursuit.  Attachment – refers to the degree to which an individual care about the opinions of others.  Commitment – refers to an individual’s investment of energy and emotion in conventional pursuits such as getting good grades. B. ECONOMIC THEORIES Economic theories of crime causation analyze how economic factors influence criminal behavior. These theories suggest that individuals may engage in illegal activities due to financial incentives or lack of legitimate economic opportunities. For instance, the Rational Choice Theory posits that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of committing a crime, choosing to engage if the perceived benefits outweigh the risks. Poverty, income inequality, unemployment, and disparities in wealth distribution are often linked to higher crime rates, as they can create environments where individuals turn to illegal means to fulfill their economic needs. Rational Choice Theory The rational choice theory was formulated by philosopher and economist Adam Smith (1723-1790). He stated that people are rational thinkers who weigh the disadvantages and benefits of their decisions, and will most often make the choices that maximize their benefits and minimize their disadvantages. Rational choice theory in criminology makes a similar assertion. While many criminologists believe that the commission of crime is influenced by external factors such as culture and environment, rational choice theory centers on the individual as the primary driving force in criminal activity. The assumptions of the rational choice theory are:    People are motivated by their own personal desires and goals and prioritize them in their choices. People compare and contrast the potential outcomes of different choices. People ultimately make the choice that gives them the most benefit. This all means that criminal behavior is the result of calculated decisionmaking. When people make the choice to commit crime, it is because they see a greater possible reward for it compared with the rewards for abiding by the law. Additionally, people who resort to crime see the costs of committing crime to be lower than those accrued by legal activities. The formal term for this method of weighing the costs and benefits of a decision for one's own self-interest is hedonistic calculus. Rational choice theory mostly applies to adults, as children lack the ability to make informed decisions as adults can due to ongoing cognitive development.