Structured Interviews

● Structured interviews ○ Predetermined questions that are asked to all participants in the same order ○ Survey technique ● Used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self report measures ● Wording effect ○ Subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents’ interpretations and responses ● Social desirability bias ○ The tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers ● Naturalistic observation ○ Method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real world settings without intervention or manipulation ○ Ways to do this: tally counts, observer narrative, audio or video recordings ● Earth cam observation activity: exploring human behavior ○ Observe and analyze human behavior in real world settings using earth cam surveillance footage, applying the principles of naturalistic observation ● Case study ○ Research method in psychology that involves an in depth study of single individual, group, or phenomenon ○ Findings from case studies may not always be generalizable to broader populations due to their focus on specific cases Correlational research ● scientific method used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables ● They do not involve manipulation of variables ● Focus on observing and measuring naturally occurring associations ● Correlation is not causation ● Allows psychologists to identify patterns and make predictions but it does not establish causation between variables ● Examine the relationship between two or more variables ● Third variable problem the possibility that a third unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest ● Scatterplot: a visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables ● Correlation coefficient: statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables ● The closer the correlation is to +1 or -1 the stronger the relationship between the variables ● A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates there is no relationship between the variables ● Positive correlation- variables moving in the same direction ● Negative correlation- variables moving in the opposite directions ● Strength: think about how strong the relationship is between the variables. A correlation coefficient close to 1 or -1 indicates a strong relationship while one closer to 0 indicates a weak relationship ● Experimental method- a research technique used to investigate cause and effect relationships between variables ● independent variable- the variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment ● Dependent variable- the variable that is observed and measured ● Independent is manipulated, dependent is measured ● confounding variables- a variable that wasn't accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results ● Operational definition- specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study ● Experimental group- the participants in the experiment that are exposed to the independent variable ● Control group- the participants not exposed to the independent variable, providing a baseline of comparison ● Random assignment- research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly ● placebo effect- the phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment, rather than due to any active ingredient or physiological mechanism in the placebo itself ● Experimenter bias- the researcher’s expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results ● Single blind study- research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group but the researchers conducting the study are aware of this info ● Double blind study- both the participants and ● Placebo condition- administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group ● Sample- refers to a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study ● representative sample- a subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population ● Stratified sampling- the population is divided into subgroups or strata, based on certain characteristics ● Convenience sampling- selecting participants based on their availability and accessibility to the researcher ● Lottery method, random sampling software ● Sample bias- when the sample is not representative of the larger population leading to inaccurate or misleading results ● Generalizability- research findings obtained from a sample can be applied or generalized to a larger population ● Statistics: a large amount of data can be collected in research studies. Psychologists need to make sense of the data ● descriptive statistics refer to the numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset ● inferential statistics involves using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population ● Measures of central tendency: statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data ● Mean: the average of a set of data, add it all up and divide by the total number of values ● Median: the middle number, put them in order and pick the middle number ● Mode: represents the most frequent number in a set of data, the number that repeats the most ● Range: difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set, subtract the smallest value from the largest value ● Normal curve or bell curve: the majority of the data falls near the center or mean of the distribution with progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions ● Regression to the mean: when extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again, this happened because extreme scores are often due to temporary factors, not lasting characteristics ● Positive skew: the majority of the data clusters on the left side with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers or unusually high values ● Negative skew: bulk of the data clusters on the right side with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers or exceptionally low values ● standard deviation: way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group ● Percentile rank: indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value ● Bimodal distribution: distribution in which there are two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph ● Statistical significance: the likelihood that observed results are not due to change, it is valid ● Effect sizes: a large effect size indicates a substantial difference or relationship, suggesting that the independent variable has a considerable impact on the dependent variable ● Meta analysis: the statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions ● Institutional review boards (IRB)are committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants ● Proposal submission, initial review, ethical assessment, feedback and revision, final approval, ongoing oversight ● Protect participants from harm emphasizes the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of participants throughout the study process ● Informed consent: the process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being informed about the study's purpose, etc ● Informed assent: specifically applies to research involving children or individuals who may have limited decision making capacity, such as those with cognitive impairments or developmental disabilities ● Confidentiality; requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost confidentiality and discretion ● Deception may involve misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study, the procedures involved or the expected outcomes ● Confederates are individuals who are apart of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study ● Debriefing is providing the participants with comprehensive information about the true nature of a research study immediately after their participation Perspectives in psychology: ● Perspectives in psychology are different ways of understanding and explaining human behavior and mental processes.