Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion Chapter Preview Theories of Motivation. Hunger and Sex. Beyond Hunger and Sex: Motivation in Everyday Life. Emotion. Motivation and Emotion: The Pursuit of Happiness. 2 Theories of Motivation Motivation: the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do. Motivated behavior is: • Energized. • Directed. • Sustained. 3 The Evolutionary Approach 1 Early psychologists using the evolutionary approach emphasized the role of instincts. Instinct: an innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species. • Generally set in motion by a “sign stimulus.” • Some human behavior is instinctive; but no human instincts seem to exist beyond infancy. 4 The Evolutionary Approach 2 Evolutionary psychologists argue the motivations for sex, aggression, achievement, and other behaviors are rooted in our evolutionary past. • Emphasize the passing on of one’s genes. • Focus on domains of life that are especially relevant to reproduction. In general, human beings are so different from each other that explaining human motivation on the basis of species-specific instinct is inappropriate. 5 Drive Reduction Theory Drive reduction theory: as a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it. • Need: a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation. • Drive: an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need. The goal is homeostasis: the body’s tendency to maintain an equilibrium, or steady state. 6 Optimal Arousal Theory Motivation influences arousal levels. Yerkes-Dodson law: performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal. 7 Hunger and Sex Eating and sex are central to the survival of our species. 8 The Biology of Hunger 1 Gastric signals: • Hunger pangs are accompanied by stomach contractions. • The hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) helps start the digestion of food and signals us to stop eating. Blood chemistry: • Hunger is triggered by low levels of glucose (blood sugar). • The hormone insulin plays a role in glucose control. • Leptin, released by fat cells, decreases food intake. 9 Figure 1: Cannon and Washburn’s Classic Experiment on Hunger In this experiment, the researchers demonstrated that stomach contractions, which were detected by the stomach balloon, accompany a person’s hunger feelings, which were indicated by pressing the key. Line A in the chart records increases and decreases in the volume of the balloon in the participant’s stomach. Line B records the passage of time. Line C records the participant’s manual signals of feelings of hunger. Line D records a reading from the belt around the participant’s waist to detect movements of the abdominal wall and ensure that such movements are not the cause of changes in stomach volume. 10 Figure 2: Leptin and Obesity Leptin’s functions were discovered in a strain of genetically obese mice, called ob mice. Because of a genetic mutation, the fat cells of ob mice cannot produce leptin. The ob mouse has a low metabolism, overeats, and gets extremely fat. Leptin appears to act as an antiobesity hormone. If ob mice are given daily injections of leptin, their metabolic rate increases, and they become more active, eat less, and lose weight. The ob mouse on the left is untreated; the one on the right has been given injections of leptin. 11 The Biology of Hunger 2 Hunger and the brain: • The lateral (outer) hypothalamus is involved in stimulating eating. • The ventromedial (inner) hypothalamus is involved in reducing hunger and restricting eating. Neurotransmitters and neural circuits also function in hunger. • Serotonin is partly responsible for the satiating effect of CCK, and serotonin agonists have been used to treat obesity. 12 Obesity 1 Biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors interact in diverse ways in eating and overeating. The biology of obesity: • There is clearly a genetic component. • Another factor is set point: the weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight. • Set point is determined in part by the amount of stored fat in the body. 13 Obesity 2 Psychological factors: • We don’t eat simply to survive; and the social context can affect when and how much we eat. • From an evolutionary perspective, our taste preferences developed when we needed a lot of calories to survive. • Subtle cues like plate size influence how much we eat. • Mindless eating is a significant factor. 14 The Biology of Sex 1 Motivation for sex is centered in the hypothalamus. • Related brain functioning also connects with areas of the limbic system and cerebral cortex. • The temporal lobes of the neocortex are involved in moderating and directing sexual arousal. Sexual feelings and behaviors are activated by various neurotransmitters and sex hormones. • Basic urge-reward-relief cycle. • With orgasm, dopamine and then oxytocin. 15 The Biology of Sex 2 The endocrine system is deeply involved. Estrogens: the class of sex hormones that predominates in females, produced mainly by the ovaries. Androgens, such as testosterone: the class of sex hormones that predominates in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females. 16 The Biology of Sex 3 Human sexual response pattern: according to Masters and Johnson, the characteristic sequence of physiological changes in sexual activity. • Excitement. • Plateau. • Orgasm. • Resolution. 17 Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors in Sexuality Sexual scripts: stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually. • Gender may influence the content. • May be influenced by media portrayals. • Some involve a double standard. • Can play a role in sexual coercion. Sexual scripts may be missing crucial information about the important role of consent in sexuality. 18 Cultural Factors in Sexuality Formal sex education typically has two goals: • To encourage the young to delay sexual activity. • To reduce teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. Types of sex education: • Comprehensive. • Abstinence-only. The evidence is clear: comprehensive sex education does a better job. 19 Sexual Behavior 1 There are many answers to what constitutes “sex.” • Vaginal intercourse? • Activities involved in reproduction? • Behavior that involves arousal and sexual responses? • Each excludes some people and some activities. Most broadly, sexual behaviors include behaviors specific to each individual that are pleasurable and unusually intimate and personal. 20 Sexual Behavior 2 Alfred Kinsey and colleagues conducted the first research on sexual behavior in the United States. • Subsequent surveys have provided a more nuanced picture of sexual behavior. The frequency of sex appears to be declining. Unmarried (or unpartnered) individuals now report having more sex than married (partnered) people. Sexual satisfaction matters to relationship satisfaction. 21 Sexual Behavior 3 Gender differences: • Men engage in more masturbation, view more pornography, report engaging in more casual sex, and have more permissive attitudes about casual sex. • Note, however, that many studies rely on self-reports and may not accurately portray actual behavior. • Men may be more focused than women on all their physical needs—not just sex. • Women tend to show more changes in their sexual patterns and desires over their lifetime. 22 Sexual Orientation 1 Sexual orientation: the direction of an individual’s erotic interests. • Today viewed as a continuum. • Heterosexual; gay or lesbian. • Pansexual: sexual attractions do not depend on the biological sex, gender, or gender identity of others. • Asexual: a lack of sexual attraction to others; may feel no sexual orientation. A person’s erotic attractions may be fluid. 23 Sexual Orientation 2 Note that regardless of sexual orientation, all people have similar physiological responses during arousal. What explains a person’s sexual orientation? • Parents’ sexual orientations and parenting styles do not predict a child’s sexual orientation. • Any theory of sexual orientation must be able to explain heterosexuality as well as homosexuality. • Genes play a role, but they are not as strong an influence as for other characteristics. 24 Sexual Orientation 3 A person cannot be talked out of sexual orientation. • Sexual orientation is an integral part of the functioning human being and that person’s sense of self. Children raised by gay men and lesbian women tend to be as well adjusted as those from heterosexual households. The scientific consensus is that marriage equality supports the well-being of individuals, couples, and their children. 25 Beyond Hunger and Sex: Motivation in Everyday Life Psychologists appreciate the role of the goals that people set for themselves in motivation. 26 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs that humans must satisfy in sequence. • Physiological needs. • Safety. • Love and belongingness. • Esteem. • Self-actualization: the motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being—the highest and most elusive of Maslow’s proposed needs. 27 Figure 3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of human needs to show that we have to satisfy basic physiological needs before we can satisfy other, higher needs. 28 Self-Determination Theory Self-determination theory asserts that all humans have three basic, innate organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. • Developed by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci. • These needs to not arise from deficits; they concern personal growth. • Research supports the idea that progress on goals that serve these needs is strongly related to well-being. 29 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation: based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun. • Often results in improved performance, persistence, creativity, and self-esteem. Extrinsic motivation: involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments. • Often negatively related to positive work outcomes. 30 Self-Regulation: The Successful Pursuit of Goals Self-regulation: the process by which an organism effortfully controls its behavior in order to pursue important objectives. • A key aspect is getting feedback. Putting personal goals into action can be challenging. • Individuals’ success improves when goals are specific and moderately challenging. • Planning how to reach a goal and monitoring progress are critical aspects of achievement. 31 Emotion Emotion: feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression. Regina King expressed a range of emotions, from surprise to joy to gratitude, when she won the Academy Award for her performance in If Beale Street Could Talk, in 2019. 32 Biological Factors in Emotion 1 The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is involved in arousal and in the rapid reaction to a stressor— the fight-or-flight response. The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) calms the body. Emotions such as anger and fear are associated with elevated SNS activity. • States of happiness and contentment also activate the SNS to a lesser extent. 33 Figure 4: The Autonomic Nervous System and Its Role in Arousing and Calming the Body The two parts of the autonomic nervous system work in different ways. The sympathetic nervous system arouses the body in reaction to a stressor, evoking the fight-or-flight response. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system calms the body, promoting relaxation and healing. Remember, the latter system functions to “rest and digest.” 34 Biological Factors in Emotion 2 One index of emotional arousal is skin conductance level (SCL). Another is the polygraph or lie detector: a machine that monitors changes in the body and is used to try to determine whether someone is lying. • No unique physiological response to lying has been found. • It has often been misused and misrepresented. 35 Biological Factors in Emotion 3 James-Lange theory: emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment. • After the initial perception of a stimulus, the experience of the emotion results from the perception of one’s own physiological changes. Cannon-Bard theory: emotional physiological reactions occur simultaneously. 36 Biological Factors in Emotion 4 Neurotransmitters and neural circuitry are involved. • Dopamine and endorphins are linked to positive emotions. • Norepinephrine regulates arousal and anxiety. • Low serotonin is linked to anger and aggression and the persistence of negative moods. The amygdalae are involved in positive emotion but also in negative emotion—particularly fear. 37 Figure 5: Direct and Indirect Pathways in the Emotion of Fear Information about fear can follow two pathways in the brain when an individual sees a snake. The direct pathway (broken arrow) conveys information rapidly from the thalamus to the amygdala. The indirect pathway (solid arrows) transmits information more slowly from the thalamus to the sensory cortex (here, the visual cortex) and then to the amygdala. 38 Cognitive Factors in Emotion 1 Two-factor theory of emotion: emotion is determined by physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. • Developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer. • We interpret external cues and then label the emotion. Misinterpreted arousal intensifies emotional experiences. 39 Cognitive Factors in Emotion 2 Which comes first, thinking or feeling? Richard Lazarus argued for the primacy of thinking: Cognitive activity is a precondition for emotion. Robert Zajonc argued emotions are primary, and our thoughts are a result of them. Both were likely correct. • Some emotional responses do not involve deliberate thinking, but others do. 40 Behavioral Factors in Emotion The behavioral component of emotion can be verbal or nonverbal. Facial expressions may both reflect our emotions and influence our emotions—an idea known as the facial feedback hypothesis. Emotional experiences can be generated by changes in and awareness of our own bodily states. 41 Figure 6: Recognizing Emotions in Facial Expressions Look at the six photographs and determine the emotion reflected in each of the faces. 42 Sociocultural Factors in Emotion 1 Facial expressions of basic emotions appear to be universal. Display rules for emotions vary, however. • Display rules: sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed. Some nonverbal signals appear to be universal indicators of emotion; but many others vary from one culture to another. 43 Figure 7: Disgust or Happiness? Look at these pictures and as quickly as possible identify whether the faces indicate disgust or joy. Even though superficially similar (look at those mouths), across genders and ethnicities you are able to rapidly categorize these expressions. Notice the similarity within expressions of each emotion. Psychologists believe that many facial expressions of emotion are virtually the same, across people and in all cultures. 44 Sociocultural Factors in Emotion 2 Men and women are alike in the way they experience emotion. • Use the same facial expressions. • Adopt the same language. • Describe their emotional experiences similarly. Where differences do emerge: • Women report more feelings of sadness and anxiety. • Men report more anger and irritability. • Contexts must be considered. 45 Classifying Emotions Valence refers to whether an emotion feels pleasant or unpleasant. • Negative affect: negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness. • Positive affect: pleasant emotions such as joy, happiness, and interest. Arousal level refers to the degree to which the emotion is reflected in activity, engagement, or excitement. 46 Figure 8: A Circumplex Model of Mood Using the dimensions of valence and arousal, this wheel-like figure shows a variety of emotional states. 47 Adaptive Functions of Emotions 1 Negative emotions carry direct and immediate adaptive benefits in certain situations. What about positive emotions? Broaden-and-build model: the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual’s attention and ability to build resources. • Proposed by Barbara Fredrickson. 48 Adaptive Functions of Emotions 2 Scholars have proposed a family tree model of positive emotions: • Root of the tree: the brain’s reward center and the action of dopamine there. • Trunk: enthusiasm—the motivational aspect. • Branches: neurotransmitters that underlie emotions. Positive emotions might play an important role in the ability of resilient people to cope with challenges. • They seem to show a kind of emotional wisdom. 49 Motivation and Emotion: The Pursuit of Happiness Motivation is about what people want; and one thing people want is to be happy or happier. 50 Biological Factors in Happiness Genes play a role in the experience of positive emotions. • The heritability estimates for happiness range from 50 to 80 percent. As with weight, there may be a happiness set point. • Happiness levels may fluctuate around this set point. 51 Obstacles in the Pursuit of Happiness The first key challenge is the hedonic (“related to pleasure”) treadmill. • We tend to adapt to any aspect of life that enhances our positive feelings, and then we return to our baseline. A second obstacle is that when happiness is the goal, the pursuit may backfire. • Those who explicitly link the pursuit of their everyday goals to happiness fare quite poorly. 52 Happiness Activities and Goal Striving 1 Intentional activities can enhance positive affect. • Being physically active, expressing kindness, showing gratitude, being optimistic, dwelling less on negative experiences, and engaging in positive self-reflection. • One technique for positive self-reflection is keeping a gratitude journal. Behaving altruistically also boosts happiness. 53 Happiness Activities and Goal Striving 2 To optimize the happiness payoffs, set goals that: • Are important and personally valuable. • Reflect the intrinsic needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy. • Are moderately challenging and share an instrumental relationship with each other. Goals keep the positive possible and interesting. • Do not forget that goals also change and are changed by life experience. 54