Columbian Exchange History

Columblan Exchange We are crushed to the ground; we lie in ruins. There is nothing but grief and suffering in Mexico and Тlatelolco, where опсе we saw beauty and valor. -from "Flowers and Songs of Sorrow," anonymous Aztec рое!, (с. 1521-1540) Essential Question: What were the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres? As the excerpt from the роет above suggests, initial contact and the subsequent conquest and colonization oftheAmericas proved di astrous for the native peoples. Overpowered Ьу superior weapons and decimated Ьу disease, many native populations declined, dissipated, or were forced to su.bmit to new rulers and а new religion. Although Ешореаn conquest seriously damaged entire native societies and their ways oflife, eveotually oew ways of life developed out of the interaction of three broad traditions of culture: indigenous American, European, and African. ln the process, the Eastem and Westem Hemispheres became linked in а new way, sharing disease, foods, and animals. For the role Cl1ristopl1er Columbus played in estaЫishing the link, these interactions became known as the Columblan Exchange. The Columbian Exchange had far-reaching effects beyond dramatic changes in population and biodiversity. It also contributed to а changi11g global economy, sometimes with unintended consequences. For example, Spain successfu1Jy mined silver in the Americas. However, this silver sparked inf\ation in Spain, which contributed to the downfall of the Spanish Empire. Diseases and Population Catastrophe Until the arrival of Columbus, the peoples of tbe Westem and Eastem Hemispheres had been almost completely isolated from each other. For that reason, tl1e indigenous people oftheAmericas had no exposшe-and tl1erefore no imшunity-to tl1e germs and diseases brought Ьу Europeans. Althougl1 European horses, gunpowder, and metal weapons helped conquer indigeoous Americans, disease was responsiЫe for the majority of deaths. Spanish soldiers, called conquistadores, such as Francisco Pizarro and Неmап Cortes, brougbt smallpox with them. Smallpox pathogens are spread through the respiratory system. When Europeans, who were largely immune after millennia of ехроsше in Afro-Eurasia, had face-to-face contact with indigenous populations, they infected these populations witl1 the deadly disease. As colonists began to settle in the Americas, so did insects, rats, and ofuer disease-carrying animals. Measles, influenza, and malaria, in addition to smallpox, also killed шаnу native peoples of the Aшericas. TJ1e indigenous population of the Aшericas fell Ьу шоге tl1an 50 percent through disease alone in less than а century. Some American lands lost up to 90 percent of their original populations. It was one of the greatest population disasters in lшman history. Souгrt:: Wiki111cdia Соm111ош; Deadly diseases such as sшallpox that саше f.-o,n Europc spread rapidly in tl1e Aшericas. Animals and Foods Germ and disease transmissions were only one part of the Co]umЫan Exchange. Another major component of the exchange was the sharing of new crops and livestock in both directions. Before the exchange began around 1500, Mesoamerican peoples const1med very little meat. Althougl1 contemporary Mexican food sold in the United States is reliant on pork, beef, and cheese, tl1e indigenous реор]е ofMexico knew nothing ofpigs or cows until Europeans introduced them. These animals, along with Mediterranean foods such as wheat and grapes, were introduced to the Western Hemisphere and eventLLally became staples of the Aшerican diet. Another doшesticated anima] the Europeans brougbt to the Americas, the horse, transformed tbe culture of the American Indians living in tbe Plains region. With the arrival of the horse, Indians could hunt buffalo on horseback so efficiently-and over а larger region-that they l1ad а surplus offood. That efficiency gave them more time for other pursuits, such as art and spirituality. However, competition and even armed co11flict among tribes i11creased, with those l1aving tl1e most horses having the most power. At tl1e same time, European explorers took back Mesoamerican maize (com), potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peppers, and сасао to thei r home countries, where people started to grow them. Potatoes became so popular in Europe that tl1ey are ofteп tlюugЬt of as being native to certain regioпs, such as Irelaпd. ТЬе introductioп ofthese vegetaЫe crops caused tremendous popu]ation growth in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. Cash Crops and Forced Labor People themselves also became part of the exchaпge. The coerced arrival of enslaved Africans to the Americas brought biological and demographic changes. For example, Africans brought okra and rice with them to the Americas. ТоЬассо and сасао produced on American plantations wiili forced labor were sold to consumers in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Even though slave traders kidnapped millions of Africans from their homelands, p opulations actually grew in Africa during the 16th and 17th centшies. That population growth happened because of the ш1tritious foods that were introduced to the co11ti11ent. Yams апd manioc, for example, were brought to Africa from Brazil. The Lure of Sugar While Spain and Spanish America profited from silver, tl1e PortL1guese empire focused its endeavors on agriculture. Brazil, tl1e center of tl1e PortL1guese-American empire, wiili its tropical climate and vast tracts ofland, was perfect for sugarcane cu1tivation. As disease J1ad decimated the indigenous population, however, there were not enough laborers availaЫe to do the cultivation. Moreover, many ofthe people who were forced to labor in the sugar fields escaped to the uncharted Brazilian j ltngle. In response, the Portuguese began to import ens]aved people from А frica, especiaJly from the Kongo Kingdom and cities оп the Swahili coast. Slavery Sugar's profitability i11 Europea11 markets dramatically increased the number of Africans captured and so]d through the transatlantic slave trade. Sugar cultivation inBrazil demanded the constant importation ofAfrican labor. African laborers \Vere so numerous in Brazil that their descendants became ilie majoгity population oftl1e region. Slave importers se□t more ilian 90 percent of slaves to the CaribЬean and South America. Only about 6 percent of slaves went to British North America. Until the mid-1800s, more Africans than Europeans went to ilie Americas. Slaves ofteп died from backbreaking working conditions, poor nlltrition, lack of adequate sl1elter, and tropical l1eat and the diseases iliat accompanied such heat. Sugarplantations processed so much sugar t.hat they were referred to as engenhos, which means "engines" in Portuguese. Because of the engenhos' horriЫe working conditions, plantation owners lost from 5 to I О percent of their labor force per year. Slavery is discussed in more detail in tbe Topic 4.4. Gro,ving Cash Crops Tl1e Spanish noticed Portugal's success with plaiJtation agriculture and returned to the Caribbean to pursue cash crop cultivation, such as sugar and tobacco. Cash crops are grown for sale rather than subsistence. Soon, sugar eclipsed silver as the main moneymaker for tl1e European empires. (Connect: Write а paragraph comparing the economic practices of Spain in the Americas and Portugal in Soнth, Southwest, and Southeast Asia. See Topic 4.2.) African Presence in the Americas African cultures we1·e not completely lost once captives arrived in the Americas. ln fact, during the African Diaspora (dispersion of Afiicans out of Africa), enslaved Afiicans retained some aspects oftheir cultures. Languages With а few exceptions, Africans were not аЫе to transplant their [anguages to the Americas. The captives were forced away from their communities, and they soon found themselves on ships among captives from all across West Africa (апd, оп some slave sl1ips, from across East Africa а well). Since captives were taken from myriad African cultural groups, most did not share а common language. UnderstandaЬly, they found it difficult, ifnot impossiЫe, to commнпicate en roнte. Because of theiI lingнistic isolation оп the ships апd iп the Americas, most Africaпs lost tl1eir laпgнages after а u generation. ln spite ofthis forced isolation from their cultres, West Africans managed to combine European colonizers' languages (English, Spanish, French, or Portuguese, for example) with parts of their West African laпguages апd grammatical patterпs to create пеw laпguages kпоwп broadly as creole. Because the Caribbean islands had а larger concentration of enslaved Africans than did North America, creole languages dominate there even today. 111 tl1e United States, wl1ich l1ad а sшalleг peгcentage of Africans in comparison to the total population, few examples of creole laпguages exist. One notaЬle exception is the Gullah or Geechee language of coastal South Carolina and Georgia, in places where slaves once composed 75 percent of the popнlation. Music Africans brought their music with theш. The syncopated rhythms and percussion they used influenced later styles. These include gospel, Ьlues, jazz, rock апd roll, hip-hop, rap, samba, reggae, and country music. One reason many African descendants maintained tbeir musical traditions was because enslaved Africans in America used them as а means of sнrvival, singing tLLnes from home to help them endure long workdays as wel1 as to communicate with other slaves, sucl1 as wllen plaпniпg ап escape. Tl1ey Ыended European Christian music witЬ their own religioнs songs, known today as Negro spirituals---essential elements of American folk music history. Enslaved people also invented tbe banjo, which is very similar to stringed instruшents found in West Africa. Food ln addition to rice and okra, Africans brought theiт knowledge of how to prepare these foods. Т11е dish known as gumbo, popular in the southern United States, has roots in African cooking. With influences on language, шusic, food, and пшсh тоге, African cнlture has had а profoнnd and lasting impact оп life in the Americas. Columblan Exchange: Eastern Hemisphere to Western Hemisphere Туре of Exchange Examples Effects оп the Western Hemisphere Crops • Sugar • Deforestation to make way for sugar, wheat, barley, okra, rice, and other crops • Wheat • Barley • Okra • Rice • Soil depletion from growing the same crops repeatedly оп the same land • Oranges • Grapes • Lettuce • Coffee Animals • Horses • Oxen • Pigs • Cattle • Sheep • Overgrazing Ьу cattle, sheep, апd goats • Soil erosion because of overgrazing • Spread of diseases from mosquitoes, rats, and livestock • Goats • Mosquitoes • Rats • Chickens People • Europeans • Racial diversity • Africans • Chattel slavery • Social structures based оп race and ethnicity Diseases • Smallpox • Spread of disease • Measles • Millions of deaths among Native American populations • Typhus • Bubonic plague • lnfluenza Technology and ldeas • Alphabetic writing • lmproved communication • Firearms • New methods for hunting and warfare Columblan Exchange: Western Hemisphere to Eastern Hemisphere Туре of Exchange Examples Effects on the Eastern Hemisphere Crops • Potatoes • Better nutrition • Maize • lncrease in population • Manioc • Greater wealth • ТоЬассо • Сасао • Peanuts Animals • Turkeys • Llamas • More diverse diet • New types of textiles ·Alpacas • Guinea pigs Diseases • Syphilis • lncreased health risks People • Native Americans • Ethnic diversity Technology and ldeas • Rubber • Quinine • Rubber was first used as an eraser • Quinine provided а treatment for malaria Environmental and Demographic lmpact Contact between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas brought dramatic changes to both. Most changes resulted from the Columbian Exchange. ln addition, though, Europeans used agricultural land more intensively than did American lndians. For example, colonists cut down trees to clear areas for planting crops, and they created large fields that they cultivated year after year. As а result, deforestation and soil depletion became proЬlems in the Americas. ln addition, Europeans often lived in more dense]y populated communities than did American lndians. This increased the strain оп water resources and created more concentrated areas of pollution. КЕУ TERMS ВУ ТНЕМЕ ENVIRONMENT: Disease smallpox ENVIRONMENT: Animals horse GOVERNMENT: Empire conquistadores ENVIRONMENT: Foods maize сасао okra rice sugarcane CULTURE: African creole gumbo ECONOMY: Exchanges Columbian Exchange transatlantic slave trade engenhos cash crop SOCIEТY: Population African Diaspora Maritime Empires Link Regions Уои grow your peanuts And plenty millet The king sets а hand оп everything And says it is not yours anymore! ln the deepest of your s/eep The king beats his drum And says wake up! Уои are not free anymore -Anonymous West African griot (storytelle� song Essential Question: How were the empires of European states estaЫished between 1450 to 1750, and what economic and labor systems fueled them? European пations, driven largely Ьу political, religious, and economic rivalries, estaЬ\ished new maritime empires and administered trading posts in Asi а and А &i са and colonies in the Americas. Asian trade frequently exchanged silver and gold for luxury goods such as silk and spices, while newly developed colonial economies in the Americas often depended on agricLLlture. American plantations relied on existiпg labor systems апd also introduced new labor systems. Among these were indentured servitude, aпangements through which servants contracted to work for а specified period of years in exchange for passage. Another was chattel slavery, а system in which iпdividuals were considered as property to Ье boнght and sold. Т11е appalling shock of free people being seized and enslaved is captured in the griot (storyeconomy peo teller) song of the West Africanfor Wo1of le. The growth of the increased the demand slaves inpthe Americas plantation , leading g to si nificant demographic, social, and cнltнral changes. State-Building and Empire Expansion The explorations of European states (see Topic 4.2) were the foundation of maritime empires. States claimed lands and estaЬ!ished the basis of ап empire in the areas they explored. Trading Posts in Africa and Asia Certai n regions of East and West Africa were the targets of European conquest during the late 15th century. Portuguese ruler Prince Henry the Navigator was keenly interested in navigational technology. (See Topic 4.2.) Не financed expeditions along Africa 's Atlaпtic Coast апd arotшd tl1e Саре of Goo d Норе, exploriпgAfrican coastal communities before other European powers. With the cooperation of local rulers, first Portuguese and t11en other European traders set up trading posts along Africa's coasts. Some local rulers traded slaves to tl1e Europeans in exchange for gнnpowder and cannons, giving iliose coastal govemments а military advantage when battling neigЬboring villages. Some African city-states grew wealth y Ьу selling enslaved Africans to Europeans. In particular, the Kingdom ofDahomey grew stronger because it raided other villages to enslave people, and sold them to European merchants. African States ln central West Africa, Portuguese explorers, traders, and missionaries made inroads into the Kongo and Benin kingdoms. Amvork from tl1ese societies bears signs ofEuropean as well asAfrican ct1ltнral inflt1ences. As early as the 16th century, Beniп artisaпs incorporated images ofthe European ''iпtruder" into their carvings and sculptшes. Yet the expansion of maritime trading networks supported the growth of some African states, including the Asante Empire and the Kingdom of the Kongo. Their participation in trade led to an increase iп their inflt1ence. In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama (see Topic 4.1) invaded the Swahili city-states of East Africa, most of whicЬ were thriving commercial centers in the Indian Ocean trade. Т11е Porttiguese took over trade in Кilwa, Mombasa, and otl1er city-states Ьу sending heavily armed ships and building fortresses. This takeover threw the region into а devastating dec line. Japan Just as Ешореап states were expanding their trade networks, Japan was sharply restricting its networks. Japan had tolerated the first Portuguese and Dt1tch traders and missionaries in the mid-16th century. Thousands of Japanese converted to Christianity. Some Christians, intolerant of other faitЬs, destroyed Buddhist shrine s. lп response, in 1587, the Japanese govemmeпt banпed Christian worsl1ip services. Over the next 40 years, Japan took additional steps to persecute Christians and limit foreign influences. Ву the 1630s, the government had expelled nearly all foreigners, banned most forei gn books, and prohibited Japanese people from traveling abroad. For more than two centuries, Japan was partially isolated from the rest of the world. They allowed some Dutcl1 mercЪants to live оп а small island in agasaki harbor, in almost total seclusion. In addition, Japan continued some trade witl1 tЪе CЪinese, mostly carried онt Ьу regional lords who were far from tl1e capital city witl1 easy access Ьу sea to Korea, Taiwan, and Okinawa. ТЪе Japanese thought that they were through with the "uncouth" Europeans. However, Europeans and Americans would return in the mid-l 9th century. China After the voyages of Zheng Не in the 15th century, the Ming Dynasty tried to limit outside influence on China Ьу restricting trade. The Ming prombited private foreign trade, destroyed some dockyards, linrited tl1e size of ships that could Ье built, and began reconstructing the Great Wall. Тhese changes ,л,еге part of а broader pattern of conservatism under tl1e Miпg to undo the influence of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty that ruled China before iliem. For example, the Ming reemphasized the importance of Confucianism and гeinvigorated the traditional exam system. Many of tl1e limits on trade were eventually reversed, and China resшned its important role in global trade. European Rivalries оп Five Continents European rivalries fueled Ьу poШicaJ, economic, and religious motives shaped ilie expansion of empires. Several powers estaЫished trading posts in Jndia: • The British East lndia Company had begun а commercial relationship with the Mughal Empire in the 17th century. • Portugal controlled а coastal trading post in the southwestern state of Goa. • France controlled Pondicherry, а city in the southeastem state ofTamil Nadu. During the mid-18th century, France and Great Britain, along with their respective allies, competed for power оп five continents in the Seven Years' Wаг. Britain's victory in iliat war in 1763 drove the French out of lndia. Т11е Portuguese remained in India until driven out in the mid-20tl1 centu.ry. British iI1 lndia At first, Brirish trading posts in lndia were typical oftlюse estaЫished Ьу Europeans in lпdia and elsewhere. The East India Company (EIC) estaЫished sma11 forts оп the coasts that focused solely on making а profit through trade. Limited Ьу the power oflndia's Mughal Empire, the EIC posts co11trolled very little territo1y. However, the EIC t11en began to expand. lt took advantage ofthe tensions between Muslims and Hindus in lndia and began to increase its political power ilirough treaties with !оса! rulers. With the help of European-trained Indian private foгces called sepoys, the East lndia Company moved inland, spreading its influence. Ultimately, Britain intervened in India politically анd militarily to such а11 extent that it controlled mucl1 ofthe subcontinent. The British Global Netlvork Тhе Britisl1 also set up trading posts in West Africa, where tl1e Asante Empire limited tl1eir impact. Trading posts in Africa, lndia, and elsewhere paved the way for globalization. Each post Ьесаmе а node, an intersecrion ofmultiple points serving as а trade center for goods from many parts of tl1e world. Europeans in the Americas Before the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th century, the Aztec Empire in Mexico and the lnca Empire in South America each included 10 nrillion to 15 million people. However, the spread ofEuropean diseases caused their populations to plummet. Botl1 empires collapsed quickly wl1en attacked Ьу Spanish forces. In Mexico, helped Ьу groups that the Aztecs had conquered, Cortes's forces overtl1rew the Aztec Ьу 1521 and estaЫished the colony of New Spain. The Spaniards melted down tЬе Aztecs' treasures and sent tl1e gold back home. They destroyed Tenochtitlan and built their own capital, Mexico City, on its ruins. In the Andes of South America, Francisco Pizarro and his crew attacked tl1e Inca and captured tl1eir н1Ier, Atahualpa. Pizarro offered to release Atahualpa if tl1e lnca would fi.11 а large rоош witl1 gold. The Inca complied. However, in 1533 tbe Spanish killedAtabualpaanyway. Ву 1572, t!Je Spaniards had completed tbeir conquest ofthe Inca Empire. Spain Versus Portugal ln tl1e Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, Spain and Portugal divided the Americas between them. Spain reserved all lands to the west ofa meridian tbat went tbrough eastern SouthAmerica. Portugal reserved all lands east of this line. This arrangeшent put Brazil under Portugal 's nile, while Spain claimed tJ1e rest ofthe Americas. Spanish and Portuguese Colonies, с. 1600 А TLANTIC OCEAN Treatyof Trm/aillrн, 1414 PACIFIC OCEAN -i'mdz:-0111-• ,11" ,:,Г'-.F . '? ZIL SOUTH AMERIC Dspain Portuga1 � Mlles ,------,, О 500 Кilometмs In addition to estaЫishing colonies in Mesoamerica and South America, Spain explored other parts ofNorth America north ofpresent-day Mexico. The explorer Pedro Menendez de Aviles estaЫislled а fort in St. Augustine on the east coast of Florida in 1565, wl1ich Ьесате tl1e oldest continuous settlement in what later became fue United States. Spain would not Ье аЬ\е to control all ofNortЬ America, however, because the French, British, and Dutch later made claims and settlements there. France Versus Britain France and Britain continued to vie for dominance in North America. As British settlers moved into foпner Dutch teпitory in upper ew York, tl1ey began to form ties witl1 tЬе powerful Iroquois, who had been in coпflict wit\1 tbe French over trade issues for decades. Т\1е British hoped that the lroquois could frustrate French trade interests. Over time, the Iroquois began to realize fuat fue British posed more of а threat tl1an fue French. ln а sl1ift of alliances, ilie Iroquois and French signed а реасе treaty known as the Great Реасе of Montreal in 1701. ln the same war in which Britain drove France out oflndia, the British drove France out ofCanada as well. The North American portion oftms war is sometimes called the French and lndian War. French, English, and Dutch Colonies, с. 1650 r AMERICA -вr111..­ сю1-. � Mlln 0 $0DICD� Continuity and Change in Economic Systems Altlюugh the intensification oftrade and the increasing influence ofEuropeans brollght some disrL1ption to the Iпdian Ocean trading networks, оп ilie wlюle, the system absorbed tl,e cl,anges and continued its familiar ways of doing business. Merchants in the lndian Ocean networks were used to paying taxes and fees to states controlling sea lanes and ports and operated often through religious and ethnic ties. They did not use arrns to protect their trade, and ifthe fees in one trading center became too higl1, they were free to move elsewhere. Europeans in the lndian Ocean Trade The Portuguese, however, aпived with superior naval forces, religious zeal, and а deterrnination to profit from the iпcreasiпgly diverse products beiпg traded, both from Asia to Еuгоре апd also within Asia. In addition to porcelain and silk from Chiлa, clotb from Gujarati weavers in westem lndia, agricultuгal goods from Java, and spices fi·om тапу places created ан abundaпt market for trade апd profit. In contrast to tЬе etlш.ic and religioнs tradiпg ties developed over Ьundreds of years, tl1e Portugнese used their military superiority to take control of trade, creating а string of arrned trading posts along the trade routes of the Indian Ocean. ln 1509, for example, the Portuguese had а decisive victory in the Battle of Diu in tl1e Arabian Sea over the combined forces ofGujaratis, the Mamlнks ofEgypt, and the Zamorin of Calicнt with the support of Venice, Portugal's European competitor. Despite the differences between the traditioпal trading networks and those co11trolled Ьу Ешореаn powers, merclшnts in the Indian Ocean trade networks contiпued as before in mапу ways-paying for the right to ще certain ports or passageways and developing trade links through traditional networks. Spain and Gold in the Americas The Westerп European search for profit began with Colшnbus. On his first voyage, 11е was convinced tbat gold was plentiful on Нispaniola, the name he gave the island now occupied Ьу Haiti and tl1e Dominican RepL1Ьlic. But gold was sparse in the Caribbean. Desiring to retL1m home with sometl1ing valuaЫe, Colшnbнs and his crew kidnapped Tainos, indigenoпs peoples, and took them, enslaved, to Spain. Jn the early 1500s, the Spanish estaЫished а system called the encomienda to gain access to gold and other resources of the Arnericas. Encomenderos, or landowners, compelled indigenous people to work for them in exchange for food and sl1elter, as landowпers reqнired of serfs in Ешоре's manorial system. This coercive labor system was notorious for its brutality and harsh living conditions. The Spaпish crown ofteп granted land to conquistadores as а reward for their efforts. The hacienda system arose wben landowners developed agricнltпre 011 their lands-wheat, fruit, vegetaЫes, and sugar. They used coerced labor to work the fields. Silver While gold did not yield riches for Spanisb conquistadores, the discovery of silver in Mexico and Peru revived economic fortunes-for both individual explorers and Spain. The нsе of mercury to separate silver from its ore increased tl1e profitability of silver miпing. Ву the end of the 16th centtiry, the cities of Zacatecas, in Mexico, and especially Potosi, in the Andes Mountains in modem-day Peru, became thriving centers of silver mining. For this industry to flourish, Spanish prospectors needed labor. The indigenoпs populations wou!d do all ЪL1t the most dangeroпs work in tl1e mines. In response, Spanisl1 aпtlюrities in Peru transformed tl1e traditional Incan mit'a system of labor oЫigation, in which ущшg men were reqtlired to devote а certaiп amouпt of labor to puЫic works projects, into а coerced labor system. Villages were compelled to send а percentage oftheir 111ale population to do the dangerous work in the mines for а paltry wage. Silver and Mercantilism The silver trade not оп\у made individual Spanis\1 prospectors wealt\1y, it also strengtheпed the Spanish economy. European powers at the time were adopting mercantilism, an economic system that increased govemment control ofthe economy through high tariffs and the estaЫishment of colonies, claimed \ands settled Ьу immigrants from the home country. In the case of Spain, the main purpose of the colonies in the Americas was to supply as nшcl1 gold and silver as possiЬ\e. Another way to increase national wealth, according to the mercantilist system, was for а colonizing country to export more than it imported. А percentage of overseas silver production went directly to the Spanish crown. The empire tised this wealtl1 to bнild нр tl1e military and estaЫisl1 fшeign trade. Continuity and Change in Labor Systems Different regions and different economies used different labor systems. Types of Labor in the Early Modern Period Laborer Location TypeofWork Freedoms/Umits Slave • Americas • Domestic labor • Considered property ·Africa • Agricultural labor • Had few or no rights • Europe • Subsistence farming • Attached to the land: not free to move at will • Most of the yield belonged to the lord • Had little or no legal protection • Domestic labor • Employer paid for transport to а new location Serf • Asia lndentured Servant Free Peasant Nomad Guild Member ·AII regions • Field work • lndividual worked without рау for up to seven years • Europe • Farming • Worked on their own land ·Asia • Craft labor (Ыacksmithing, weaving, etc.) • Sometimes owned а business • Paid taxes to the lord • Paid tithes to the church • Europe • Animal breeding • Did not own land permanently •Asia • Pastoralism • Used land temporarily • Africa • Herding • Had freedom to move • Europe • Skilled craft labor • Started as an apprentice • Workers organized to set standards for quality and price • Could eventually work independently During this era, Europeans sought soшces of inexpensive labor in the Americas. Westem European couпtries sucl1 as Portugal, Spain, and England were developing their naval technology, but Portugal was ahead of the others. ln West Africa during the latter part of the l400s, Portuguese trading fleets arrived in the Kingdom of the Kongo seeking slaves. lnitially tl1ey took the enslaved Africans back to Europe to work as domestic servants. Slavery existed in Africa-including the extensive enslavement of women as household workers-well before Europeans sought labor for their iпvestrnents in the Aшericas. For example, in many societies, tl1e entire community sbared tЬе land. In order to estaЫish positions ofwealth and power, individuals not only showcased the property they owned, but also showcased the eпslaved people they owned. Europeans were also not the first foreigners to seek 0L1t African labor. Arab merchants during the Postclassical Era (600-1450) often bought enslaved people during their travels to the Swahili Coast of East Africa. However, it was the Atlantic slave trade that wreaked the most havoc on African societies. (Connect: Compose а graphic organizer comparing slavery dL1ring S ub-Saharan Africa's early colonial period with slavery from 600 to 1450. See Topic 2.3.) Why Africans? Several factors converged to makeAfrica а target for slave raids Ьу Eшopeans after 1450. Slavery in Latin Arnerica and tl1e Caribbean began toward the end of the 16th century, when European conquistadores sought fortunes in gold, siJver, and sugar. Land was plentiful, but labor to make the land profitaЫe was scarce. Europeans initially forced indigenous people to do the hard labor of mining and fam1ing, but European diseases wiped out large portions of these coerced laborers. The indigenous slaves who survived often escaped bondage because, in comparison with the Europeans, they were more familiar with the territory, had social networks that could protect them, and coLlld easily camouftage themselves within the native population. Repeated efforts to enslave Native Americans failed, although other efforts to coerce labor did have some success. Labor for Plantations In North America, plantation owners recruited European indentured servaпts who would соте to work, n10stly to grow tobacco, for а specified period in exchange for passage, room, and board. However, most ofthese people were not used to the backbreaking agricultural working conditions and the climate of the Americas. 1n addition, indentured servaпts were required to work for опlу about seven years. If tbey survived their iпdenture, they became free laborers. Thus, landowners did not think of indigenous captives and European indentured servants as ideal workers. Capture and Shipment of Slaves to the Americas Capturing Africans for slavery was invariaЫy violent. When African leaders along the coast realized tliat tl1eir kingdoms could econornically benefit from tl1e slave trade, they invaded neighboring societies in а quest for slaves to take back to ilie coast. At times, African rulers were also willing to hand over individuals from the lower rungs of their own societies, such as prisoners of war, servants, or crirninals. However, Кing Afonso of Kongo understood that slave raids were not easily controllaЫe. Though he had initially allowed slave trading in his kingdom, he had no intention of giving up his society's elite to slavery, nor did he want Kongo to Ье depopulated. King Afonso also saw that his authority was undermined because l1is subjects were аЫе to trade slaves for European goods without his involvement. Before the Eшopeans came, he l1ad been аЫе to control all trade in his domain. Source: \V1kiП1cdia Co111111ons, РuЫ1с Ооnшш Slaves beiпg transpor1e,l in A[rica, 19th cenrury engraving The Horrors ot· the Journey Captive Africans, swept away fro111 their families, were taken to holding pens in West Africa known as barracoons, or "slave castles." The modem country of Ghana has preserved these "Points of No Retum," where thousands upon thousands ofAfricaпs saw their homelaпd forthe last tiшe. Today,people can visit one sucЬ holding priso[}-t]1e so-called House of Slaves on lle de Goree (Goree Island), on tbe coast of Senegal. From these holding pens, slave traders next crammed tbeir captives into tbe dank cargo section of а ship, providing them little water, food, or even room for movement. The gшeling journey across tl1e Atlantic was kпown as the Middle Passage, because it ,vas the middle part of the captives' joumey. Many captured Africans attempted rebellions at sea, but most uprisings were crusbed. Dшing the joшney to the Americas, which usнally took about six weeks, нр to half of а ship's captives migЬt die. Over tl1e hundreds of years of the Atlantic slave trade, from the early l 500s to the mid-19th century, 1 О to 15 percent of all African captives perished before reaching the Americas. (Connect: Write an outline of tl1e effects of the Atlantic slave trade on Afтica. See Topic 4.3.) Desti nation of Enslaved Africans Ьу Colonial Region Destination Portuguese Colonies Percentage 39% British West lndian Colonies 18% Spanish Colonies 18% French Colonies 14% British Mainland Colonies 6% Dutch West lndian Colonies 2% Other 3% Source; Slepbeн D. Bel1reпdt el al. Аfгi,·шш: Т/1е E11cyc(opedit1 ufrheAfi·ica11 шtd Africш, Amerit·шi Еrрегiещ:е. Demographic, Social, and Cultural Changes The growth of the plaпation economy апd tl1e expansion of slave1y iп the Americas led to significant changes that affected not on]y count]ess individua11ives but also broad patterns of history. The physical migration of captives had significant impact оп the demograpl1ics ofboth their African lюmes and the countries of tl1eir captivity. n1e exportation of enslaved people that was required to keep the population coпtinuing in the country of captivity caused а ceпtury-long decline in popu]ation in A:frican bome countries. In addition to physicaJ migration, slavery resulted in а migration of status, from free person to enslaved, setting up social classes tl1at remain influential in post-slavery countries. Further, it disn1pted family organization, since families were often separated, and more men than women were taken captive. Polygyny (having more than one wife) became more common. With people treated as commodities, as chattel slavery, social апd family groupings were determined more Ьу supply and demaпd tlшn Ьу the familial bonds ofkinsl1ip. Each region in which slavery was introduced was affected in а unique way. However, in all of them, реор!е with African roots helped shape and enrich the language and culture ofthe societies into which they were brought. The mixing of etlшic groups reslllted in new groL1ps of multiracial people, such as mestizos апd пшlattos. The lndian Ocean Slave Trade While most Africans who were enslaved and transported to the Americas came from west and central Africa, there u was а long-rnning slave trade in the eastem part ofthe continent. Ву routes overland or in the Indian Ocean, slaves from eastern Africa were sold to buyers in northern Africa, the Middle East, and India. Many were transported to the islands off tl1e soнtheast coast of Africa, Sllch as Madagascar. The trade reached its peak in the 18tЬ and 19th centшies. Slaves taken in the Indian Ocean trade suffered different fates from those taken across the Atlantic. S1aves in the lndian Ocean were more likely to work in seaports as laborers in the shipping industry and as lюusehold servants. Some worked as sailors or even soldiers. Living in towns or cities, they had some opportunity to develop communities and to work alongside free laborers. Slaves who ended up in Islamic commнnities had certain rights, s11ch as the rigl,t to marry. As а resнlt of the Indian Ocean s1ave trade, African words, musical styles, and customs can Ье found in Oman, lnd.ia, and elsewbere. КЕУ TERMS ВУ ТНЕМЕ GOVERNMENT: African States Asante Empire Kingdom of the Kongo GOVERNMENT: East Asian States Ming Dynasty GOVERNMENT: Americas Aztec Empire lnca Empire New Spain Mexico City Francisco Pizarro Atahualpa Treaty of Tordesillas Hispaniola conquistadores ECONOMY: Products silver ECONOMY: Economic Systems mercantilism colonies ECONOMY: Labor Systems indentured servitude chattel slavery encomienda encomenderos coercive labor system hacienda system mit'a system Middle Passage