Types of Communication

1. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION There are six main types of communication under this criterion, namely:          Intrapersonal Interpersonal Extrapersonal Group Organisational Mass Teleconferencing Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication Formal and Informal Communication 1.1. Intrapersonal Communication This is communication within and to the self. This could be in form of reflecting on or thinking on how to do something. In this case, one is both the sender and receiver. It could also be in form of writing diaries for oneself or talking to oneself (Dimbleby & Burton, 1998:7). Self-motivation, self-determination and related activities also exemplify intrapersonal communication (Raman & Sharma, 2004:10). There is also a negative dimension to this type of communication. Because of life challenges, many people get involved in this type of communication than other types of communication. They are engulfed in thinking about their problems, leading to anxiety. This result in most cases is high blood pressure, which could precipitate stroke, with its many attendant problems. It is good to get involved in intrapersonal communication. However, if it is being extended to thinking about problems without proffering any meaningful solutions, one should change to interpersonal communication or other types of communication. A problem shared is a problem almost halfsolved, as the saying goes. 1.2. Interpersonal Communication This kind of communication takes place between people. In interpersonal communication, feedback is immediate. Because of the proximity of people in this type of communication, non-verbal cues play important roles. Examples of interpersonal communication are conversation between people in a café, salesperson-client interaction, interview, and even telephone conversation. (Dimbleby & Burton, 1998:7). 1.3. Extrapersonal Communication Extrapersonal communication refers to communication between humans and non-humans. This typically involves humans communicating with pet animals. “More than any other form, this form of communication requires coordination and understanding between the sender and the receiver as at least one of them transmits information or responds in sign language only” (Raman & Sharma, 2004:10). In most cases, the feedback is based on the level of closeness and frequency of interaction with such animals. Some people prefer this type of communication to interpersonal communication. It appears that, in this age, some people are exploring the possibility of making some animals move to the status of humans, doing some uncommon things with these animals, including sex, which involves some communication too. 1.4. Group Communication This is “communication within groups of people and by groups of people to others” (Dimbleby & Burton, 1998:7). There are two major types: small groups and large groups. Examples of small groups are family, group of friends and committee. Large groups are higher and come together for purposes different from those of small groups. Examples of large groups are audience at a concert and spectators at a sport event (Dimbleby & Burton, 1998:7-8). 1.5. Organization Communication This is similar to group communication. The major difference is that it involves some hierarchical levels. There may not be direct contact between the sender and the receiver. Raman and Sharma (2004:11-12) identify three subdivisions of organizational communication: internal operational, related to conducting work within an organization; external operational, involving work-related communication between an organization and people outside; and personal, involving communication done in an organization without business purposes. 1.6. Mass Communication This is communication received by or used by large numbers of people (Dimbleby & Burton, 1998:8). It requires a mediator for transmission of information. The approach is usually impersonal because of the heterogeneity and anonymity of the audience. Product advertisement, press interviews; news broadcast are examples of mass communication. Other examples are audio/video cassette, industry, telephone and postal systems, among others. Mass communication is essentially characterized by large reach, impersonality, and presence of a gatekeeper/mediator, like the editor (Dimbleby & Burton 1998:8). 1.7. Teleconferencing Communication has gone beyond the face-to-face type. There is now teleconferencing. This allows participants in two or more locations to see and speak with each other (Adler & Elhorst, 2008:25). This type of communication is common in developed nations of the world. Some developing nations are taking advantage of this too. Multi-nationals are constantly trying to improve on this type of communication to make their operation more effective. 1.8. Verbal Communication Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally; where communication is carried out either by word of mouth or by writing. 1.9. Components of Verbal Communication Following are the different components of verbal communication:         Understandable Language Word choice Inflection (pattern of stress in oral speech) Tone Body language Eye behavior (oculesics) Visuals (pictures, maps, charts, graphs, colors, signs, etc.) Auditory elements (sounds, tunes, whistles, etc.) 1.10. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication refers to communications made through various wordless or unspoken mediums. 1.11. What is Grapevine? Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so because it stretches throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Example of Grapevine Network of Communication 1. Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumour is spread that this much profit is there and on that basis bonus is declared. 2. CEO may be in relation to the Production Manager. They may have friendly relations with each other Advantages of Grapevine Communication 1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend who in turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily. 2. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication. 3. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness. 4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value. 5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not work. Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication 1. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours. Thus, it does not clearly depicts the complete state of affairs. 2. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follows official path of communication and is spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report. 3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather than working. 4. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives. 5. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative information about the high level people of the organization. 1.12. Types of Informal Communication Single-stranded Chain In a single-stranded chain, information is passed by one person to another, who in turn passes it to some other and the process continues. Cluster Chain In a cluster chain, information is passed by one person to his/her reliable ones, and the latter passes it to their reliable friends and the communication continues. Probability Chain In a probability chain, a person passes the information to a randomly chosen person and the communication goes on. Gossip Chain In a gossip chain, a person passes the information to a group of people and the members of the group passes it to some more people and the information spreads. 2. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION Here are the channels of communication: 2.1. Downward and Upward Communication Communication passes on in different directions – downward, upward, or lateral in any organization. In this section, we will discuss the downward and upward communication directions and the basic differences that exist between them. 2.2. Downward Communication Downward communication flows from a superior to a subordinate. The Managing Director communicating with the departmental heads, a manager giving a directive to an assistant manager or a supervisor, a foreman instructing a worker, are all engaged in the process of downward communication. Orders, individual instructions, policy statements, job-sheets, circulars, etc., fall under downward communication. Main objectives of downward communication are:     To give specific directives about the job being entrusted to a subordinate; To explain policies and organizational procedures; To apprise the subordinates of their performance; and To give the subordinates information about the rationale of their job so that they understand the significance of their job in relation with the organizational goals. Media for downward communication Downward communicational may be both oral and written. Important directives to initiate actions may be communicated through letters; policies and procedures may be announced through circulars, house organs, manuals, bulletins, etc; annual reports may be found suitable for acquainting the lower staff with the activities and achievements of the organization during the year; and posters may be used to pass on miscellaneous information. But the downward flow of communication is dominated by oral means. It is more natural for the foreman to issue oral instructions to his workers. The Managing Director would find it more convenient to convene a meeting of the departmental heads and pass on relevant information to them rather than writing them lengthy letters (in certain cases, letters may, of course, be preferred). Sometimes, the Managing Director may directly address all the employees over a public address system. Audio-visual media like films and slides may also be used for downward communication. Limitations of downward communication: 1. Under- communication and over- communication. Downward communication is often marred by either under- communication or overcommunication, i.e., a superior may either talk too little or too much about a job. Sometimes the superiors act in a presumptuous manner; they communicate the decisions but withhold relevant background information about how those decisions were arrived at. If the Managing Director orders a number of transfers without talking into confidence his departmental heads, he is guilty of under communication, and his action is likely to cause apprehensions among the staff. Under- communication may also involve incomplete instructions, which will inevitably lead to unsatisfactory performance. Over- communication or talking too much, on the other hand, may lead to the leakage of confidential information, or the message may get lost in a jungle of irrelevant details. 2. Delay. The lines of communication in downward communication being very long, transmitting information to the lowest worker is a timeconsuming process. By the time information reaches him, it may have lost much of its significance, or it may have caused damaging delay. 3. Loss of information. Unless the communication is fully written, it is not likely to be transmitted downwards in its entirely. A part of it is almost certain to be lost. In fact, it has been experimentally verified that “only 20 per cent of the communication sent downward through five levels of management finally gets to the workers’ level”. 4. Distortion. In long lines of communication, information is not only lost but even distorted. Exaggerating, making under-statements, giving unconscious twists to facts are a part of human nature. Whenever a piece of information passes on from one individual to another, it loses a little of its authenticity. By the time it reaches its destination, it may not contain even an iota of truth. 5. Built-in resistance. Downward communication smacks of too much authoritarianism. The subordinates do not get any opportunity of participating in the decision-making process. They are expected to receive the policy decision and directives without questioning their appropriateness, utility or validity, which they resent. Essentials of effective downward communication: 1. Managers should keep themselves well informed of the objectives, activities and achievements of their organization. If they are themselves in possession of adequate information, they will be able to transmit information to their subordinates in an effective manner.J 2. Managers must work according to a communication plan. They must decide beforehand how much information is to be communicated and at what time. This will ensure that there is neither a communication gap, nor over-communication or under- communication. 3. There should not be over-concentration of authority at the highest level. If an organization is so structured that orders and instructions can originate at various levels, the lines of communication will be shortened. Downward flow will gain momentum. Delays will be eliminated. Loss of information and the possibility of distortion will be minimized, if not fully checked. 4. Information must be passed on to the correct person in the hierarchy. If the Managing Director bypasses the departmental heads to communicate directly with the lower staff, he is subverting the organizational structure and creating future problems for the smooth flow of downward communication. 2.3. Upward Communication If the managers have to transmit information down the line of authority, they have also to receive information continuously emanating from levels below them. The communication channel, which pushes the flow of information upward, is known as the upward channel of communication. Managers have only recently come to recognize the importance of upward communication. Importance of upward communication 1. Providing feedback. Upward communication provides the management with necessary feedback. The management is able to ascertain whether the directives issued to the lower staff have been properly understood and followed. It also gets valuable information what the employees think of the organization and its policies. 2. Outlet for pent-up emotions. Upward communication gives the employees an opportunity to vent their problems and grievances. Although the management often thinks it knows and realizes the grievances of the employees, the latter hardly feel convinced and satisfied. In any case, it is of vital importance to look at the employees’ problems as they look at them. The genuine and pressing grievances are redressed; a ground is prepared for the solution of some other problems; and with regard to those problems which cannot be immediately solved, at least the employees feel light after having talked about them. 3. Constructive suggestions. Often employees offer constructive suggestions to promote the welfare of the organization. Some of these suggestions when implemented definitely prove beneficial. 4. Easier introduction of new schemes. Since the employees feel themselves to be a party to the decision-making process, it helps the organization to introduce new schemes without unduly antagonizing the employees. They not only willingly lend their concurrence and support to any new scheme floated by the management but also even take extra pains to make a success of it. 5. Greater harmony and cohesion. Upward communication acts as a kind of lubricant. It makes the atmosphere in the company congenial and creates greater harmony and cohesion between the management and the employees. Method of upward communication Some of the more commonly used method of upward communication are discussed below: 1. Open-door policy. The employees are given a feeling that the manager’s doors are always open to them. Whenever they like they can walk into his room, without any hesitation whatsoever, and talk to him about their problems. 2. Complaints-and-suggestions boxes. At some convenient places in the ofÏce or the factory, complaints-and-suggestions boxes are installed. The employees are encouraged to drop their complaints or suggestions, if any, into these boxes. 3. Social gatherings. Social gatherings are frequently arranged in different departments. These gatherings offer a very informal atmosphere in which the employees shed their inhibitions and feel free to talk about their problems. 4. Direct correspondence. Sometimes the manager may directly write to an employee and ask him to communicate with him. Or the employees may write to their higher ups at their own initiative. 5. Reports. Employees may be required to submit reports about the progress of their work at regular intervals. 6. Counseling. In some organizations, workers are encouraged to seek the counsel of their superiors on their personal problems. What they think to be their personal problems are often a conglomeration of domestic and ofÏcial-problems. In the ofÏce, they often feel stifled because of lack of promotional avenues or offended by the ofÏcious or unduly meddlesome nature of their superiors or even their colleagues. As they feel encouraged to talk about themselves freely, they provide the managers with valuable information. While counseling helps the employees to solve their problems, the information provided by them is utilized by the managers to give a better shape to their future policies. Limitations of upward communication 1. Employees are usually reluctant to initiate upward communication. The managers might keep their doors open, but they cannot force the employees to walk into their room. 2. Employees often feel that if they communicate their problems to their superiors, it may adversely reflect on their own efÏciency. If a supervisor experiences some difÏculty in getting cooperation from his workers and points it out to the departmental manager, the latter might feel that the supervisor himself is incompetent. If a clerk who has just joined the ofÏce complains that the filing system of the ofÏce is in total disarray, his supervisor might conclude that the clerk himself is not efÏcient enough to handle filing properly. 3. Upward flow of communication is more prone to distortion than downward communication. In downward communication, distortion is often unconscious. But upward communication is deliberately distorted. Some managers lose their cool if they are confronted with unpleasant or unpalatable facts. So information, particularly of the unpalatable sort, is suitably ‘edited’ before it is passed on to them. 4. Sometimes in the process of upward communication, workers become too bold, ignore their immediate superiors and directly approach the topmost authorities with their suggestions or complaints. This proves harmful in two ways. The ofÏcers who have been by passed feel slighted, while the high-ups get suspicious of the workers’ intentions. The relations between the workers and their immediate superiors get strained and work suffers. Essentials of effective upward communication 1. In order to enable the workers to overcome the awe of authority, the managers should keep on encouraging them to come out of their shell and communicate freely. It is futile to expect the workers to take initiative, for if any initiative is to be taken, the managers must take it. Keith Davis rightly says, “The way the open door can be most effective is for managers to walk through it and get among their people. The open door is for managers to walk through, not employees.” 2. Distortion by ‘editing’ can be avoided if the lines of communication are kept as short as possible. 3. All upward communication should be properly analyzed. Genuine grievances deserve to be immediately resolved. Suggestions for improvement, if found feasible, should be taken up for implementation and workers responsible for them should be suitably rewarded. 4. 3. HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION 5. Communication between departments or people on the same level in the managerial hierarchy of an organization may be termed as horizontal or lateral communication. It is the most frequently used channel of communication. Workers communicating with other workers, clerks exchanging information with one another, supervisors holding a coffeebreak session to discuss some organizational problems are all engaged in horizontal communication. 6. Importance of Horizontal Communication: Horizontal communication is extremely important for promoting understanding and coordination among various departments. Not much imagination is needed to visualize the embarrassing situations that lack of coordination might create for the organization. The purchase department might keep on purchasing material which is neither immediately needed nor can be adequately stored. The stores may report shortage of material when production is fully geared up. Scarcity of raw material may cause the production to slow down but the sales department may continue booking orders. Free flow of horizontal communication among various departments can easily avert the incidence of such situations. 7. In a small organization, these functions are often concentrated in the same person or in a few persons who are stationed in close proximity to one another. They do not face any communication problem, for the moment a problem crops up, it is thrashed out through mutual consultation. But in large organizations with complex structures, a deliberate effort has to be made to maintain a free flow of horizontal communication. 8. Some managers discourage horizontal communication, feeling that workers may get friendly with one another and may pose problems for the management. They believe in issuing orders from the top and insist on their unqualified acceptance. But such a procedure suffers from two very grave disadvantages. If all authority rests with one person at the top, and no scope is left for mutual discussion and solutions at the lower levels. In such a situation, work may be held up every now and then for want of fresh directives. This causes unnecessary delay. Secondly, this kind of authoritarianism is likely to provoke bitterness and indignation among the workers. 9. 10. Methods of Horizontal Communication 11. Horizontal communication is most effectively carried on through oral means. Face-to-face exchange of views or a brief conversation over the telephone is very convenient for horizontal communication. These situations carry with them an air of informality. Formal channels tend to make managers statusconscious so that they express their views in extremely measured terms. This impedes the free flow of communication. 12. But the congenial atmosphere in which oral communication takes place allows freedom of expression; there is immediate feedback and all doubts and misunderstandings are sorted out. Periodical meetings among the departmental heads are also used for oral communication. Among written means, letters, memorandums, and reports are most frequently used. Short memos are found very convenient for transmitting small bits of information.