Women’s Leadership and Policy Decisions in India Tables

Table 1: Fraction of Women among Pradhans in Reserved and Unreserved GP Reserved GP (1) Total number % Female 54 100 Non reserved GP (2) 107 6.5 Difference (3) 93.5 (3.38) Table 2: Village characteristics in reserved and unreserved GP, 1991 Census Mean, reserved GP (1) Mean, unreserved GP (2) Difference 13579 12606 Number of public health facilities 1.10 0.76 Number of health facilities (total) 7.10 4.15 Number of Hospitals 0.09 0.00 Number of High Schools 1.37 1.19 Number of Middle Schools 0.66 0.69 Number of Primary Schools 12.07 12.26 -973 (614) -0.34 (.26) 0.05 (1.14) -0.09 (.06) -0.19 (.29) 0.02 (.13) 0.18 (.88) 1022.07 973.88 Female Literacy Rate 0.34 0.35 Male Literacy Rate 0.58 0.57 % Cultivated land that is irrigated 0.43 0.45 Dirt road 0.91 0.92 Metal road 0.15 0.18 Bus or train stop 0.26 0.31 Number of Public health facilities 0.08 0.06 Number of tuwells and hand pumps 1.20 1.13 Number of drinking water wells 0.47 0.44 Tap Water 0.03 0.05 Number of Primary Schools 0.91 0.95 Number of Middle Schools 0.05 0.05 Number of High Schools 0.10 0.09 Dependent variables A. GP Level Total Population B. Village level Total Population (3) -48.62 (75.48) 0.01 (.01) -0.01 (.02) 0.02 (.04) 0.01 (.02) 0.03 (.03) 0.05 (.04) -0.02 (.02) -0.07 (.14) -0.02 (.08) 0.01 (.03) 0.04 (.08) 0.00 (.01) -0.01 (.02) Notes: 1) There are 161 observations in the GP level regressions and 2120 observations in the village level regr 2) Standard errors given in parentheses. In the village regressions they are corrected for clustering at the Table 3: Pradhan's characteristics in reserved and unreserved GP Mean, reserved GP (1) Mean, unreserved GP (2) Difference Age 31.87 (1.18) 39.72 (.84) -7.85 (1.45) Education 7.13 (.44) 9.92 (.31) -2.79 (.54) Literacy 0.80 (.04) 0.98 (.03) -0.19 (.04) Married 0.89 (.05) 0.87 (.03) 0.02 (.06) Number of children 2.45 (.21) 2.50 (.15) -0.05 (.26) Below poverty line 0.46 (.06) 0.28 (.05) 0.18 (.08) 1.72 (.19) 1553.52 (236.58) 1.35 (.23) 2.36 (.14) 2107.92 (168.92) 2.35 (.16) -0.64 (.23) -554.40 (290.7) -0.99 (.28) Depedent variables (3) A. PRADHAN'S BACKGROUND Number of household assets Population of pradhan's own village Hesitates when answering the questions (interviewer's impression) B. PRADHAN'S POLITICAL AMBITION AND EXPERIENCE Has been elected in the GP council before 1998 0.11 (.1) 0.46 (.07) -0.34 (.12) Has been elected has pradhan before 1998 0.00 (.04) 0.12 (.03) -0.12 (.05) Took part in Panchayat activities before elected 0.28 (.06) 0.78 (.04) -0.50 (.07) Knew how GP functioned 0.00 (.05) 0.35 (.04) -0.35 (.07) Did not receive any formal training 0.06 0.00 0.06 (.02) (.01) (.02) Was spouse ever elected to the 0.17 0.02 0.15 Panchayat? (.03) (.02) (.04) Does spouse help? 0.43 (.05) 0.13 (.04) 0.30 (.07) Will not run again 0.33 (.06) 0.21 (.04) 0.13 (.07) Left Front 0.69 (.06) 0.69 (.05) -0.01 (.08) Right (Trinamul or BJP) 0.19 (.05) 0.18 (.04) 0.01 (.06) 54 107 C. PRADHAN'S POLITICAL PARTY Observations Notes: (1) Standard errors are given in parentheses Table 4: The effect of women's reservation on women's political participation Mean, reserved GP (1) Mean, unreserved GP (2) Difference Participation rate in last Gram Samsad (in percentage) 12.26 (1.13) 13.07 (.82) -0.81 (1.44) Fraction of women among participants in the Gram Samsad (in percentage) 9.90 (1.12) 6.88 (.82) 3.02 (1.4) Did women raise questions at the last Gram Samsad? 0.38 (.05) 0.29 (.03) 0.09 (.06) Dependent variables Have women addressed a complaint to 0.20 0.11 the GP in the last 6 months (.03) (.02) Notes (1) Standard errors in parentheses (2) There are 322 observations in the village level regressions (3) Standard errors are corrected for clustering at the GP level in the village level regressions, using Moulton (1986) formula (3) 0.10 (.05) Table 5: Issues raised by women and men in the last 6 months Issue Drinking water Road improvement Welfare programs Housing Electricity Child care Health credit/employment/women's group Irrigation and ponds Education Other Fraction of issues raised by Women Men (1) (2) 0.26 0.14 0.25 0.22 0.10 0.04 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.03 0.17 0.02 0.14 0.04 0.06 Notes: (1) Each cell is the number of times an issues was mentionned, divided by the total number of issues mentionned. (2) The data for men comes from a subsample of villages Table 6: Effect of women's reservation on organizations in the GP Outcome Mean, reserved GP (1) Mean, unreserved GP (2) Difference Women organisations, self help groups created since 1998 0.07 (.03) 0.03 (.02) 0.03 (.04) Number of tubewells management comittees created since 1998 0.04 (.03) 0.05 (.02) -0.01 (.04) Village education and Village attendance committees created since 1998 1.10 (.08) 1.04 (.06) 0.20 (.12) Number of health information campaigns and immunization campaigns since 1998 2.50 (.32) 3.01 (.26) -0.11 (.46) (3) A. VILLAGE LEVEL All the previous 5 planned Gram Samsad 0.64 0.74 -0.06 were held. (.06) (.05) (.09) Women organisations, self help groups and micro-credit groups created since 1998 0.26 (.07) 0.34 (.05) -0.08 (.08) Does the GP has a forest management committee or a drinking water committee 0.72 (.06) 0.78 (.04) -0.06 (.07) Additional acreage brought under social forestries or fisheries since 1998 0.93 (.39) 0.60 (.28) 0.32 (.48) Village education and Village attendance committees created since 1998 10.17 (.97) 10.57 (.69) -0.40 (1.19) Number of health information campaigns and immunization campaigns since 1998 5.43 (1.09) 6.49 (.78) -1.06 (1.34) Total Own fund collected in 1998 (rs. 1000) 40.63 (7.78) 59.11 (5.58) -18.48 (9.58) Taxes 25.83 (4.08) 34.34 (2.91) -8.51 (5.01) Other revenues 9.92 (5.37) 26.53 (3.83) -16.61 (6.59) B. GP LEVEL Notes: (1) Standard errors in parentheses (2) There are 322 observations in the village level regressions, and 161 in the GP level regressions. There are only 100 observations in the last three rows (3) Standard errors are corrected for clustering at the GP level in the village level regressions, using Moulton (1986) formula (4) All equations are estimated jointly in the GP level regressions and the standard errors account for interequation correlation. Table 7: Effect of women's reservation on public good investments Dependent variable (1) Mean, reserved GP (1) Mean, unreserved GP (2) Difference Number of drinking water facilities newly built or repaired 23.83 (3.2) 14.74 (2.28) 9.09 (4.02) Number of irrigation facilities newly built or repaired 3.31 (.92) 3.67 (.66) -0.36 (1.27) Condition of roads (1 if in good condition) 0.41 (.04) 0.23 (.03) 0.18 (.06) Number of latrines and drainage pits newly built or repaired 0.14 (.15) 0.42 (.11) -0.28 (.19) Number of new biogas facilities 0.26 (.07) 0.06 (.05) 0.20 (.08) Number of informal education centers 0.06 (.04) 0.12 (.03) -0.06 (.04) Nuber of of adult education centers newly built or repaired 0.10 (.02) 0.01 (.02) 0.09 (.03) Number of formal school buildings newly built or repaired 0.59 (.08) 0.51 (.06) 0.07 (.1) 1 if a new tubewell was built 1.00 (.03) 0.93 (.02) 0.07 (.03) 1 if at least one irrigation pump was built 0.17 (.04) 0.09 (.03) 0.07 (.05) 1 if a metal road was built or repaired 0.67 (.07) 0.48 (.05) 0.19 (.08) 1 if a culvert or a minor irrigation canal was built or repaired 1.00 (.04) 0.85 (.03) 0.15 (.05) 1 if new toilets or new drainage pits were constructed 0.50 (.07) 0.57 (.05) -0.07 (.08) 1 if new biogas equipment was introduced 0.50 (.07) 0.45 (.05) 0.05 (.08) 1 if there is an informal education center in the GP 0.67 (.06) 0.82 (.04) -0.16 (.07) 1 if there is an informal education center in the GP (literate pradhans) 0.74 (.06) 0.83 (.04) -0.08 (.07) 1 if there is a continuing education center or if there was a literacy campaign 0.91 (.04) 0.87 (.03) 0.04 (.05) (3) A. VILLAGE LEVEL B. GP LEVEL Notes: (1) Standard errors in parentheses (2) There are 322 observations in the village level regressions, and 161 in the GP level regressions. There are only 100 observations in the last row (3) Standard errors are corrected for clustering at the GP level in the village level regressions, using Moulton (1986) formula (4) All equations are estimated jointly in the GP level regressions and the standard errors account for interequation correlation. Table 8: Effect of Pradhan's gender on formal education and health outcomes Mean, reserved Mean, unreserved GP GP (1) (2) Difference (3) Number of obs. (5) Number of pre-school centers opened since 1998 (GP) 1.46 (.59) 1.77 (.42) -0.31 (.72) 160 Number of pre-school centers opened since 1998 (Village level) 0.18 (.43) 0.54 (.3) -0.36 (.46) 252 Pradhan reports that the Village education Committee has influence over the primary school (GP) 0.80 (.05) 0.89 (.03) -0.09 (.06) 161 Villagers report that the Panchayat has influence over the running of the primary school (Village) 0.37 (.05) 0.32 (.03) 0.05 (.07) 322 Pradhan reports that low teacher attendance is a problem. (GP) 0.44 (.07) 0.65 (.05) -0.21 (.08) 161 Pradhan reports that low teacher attendance is a problem. (GP, litterate pradhans only) 0.47 (.07) 0.66 (.05) -0.19 (.09) 148 Villagers report that low teacher attendance is a problem (village) 0.31 (.05) 0.34 (.03) -0.03 (.06) 322 Number of health workers or doctor visits in the villages in the last 6 months (for village with at least 1 visit). 15.03 (1.55) 11.01 (1.09) 4.02 (1.63) 262 Notes: (1) Standard errors in parentheses (2) Standard errors are corrected for clustering at the GP level in the village level regressions, using Moulton (1986) formula (3) All equations are estimated jointly in the GP level regressions and the standard errors account for interequation correlation. Table 9: Pradhan's gender and investment in Pradhan's village, IV regressions Dependent variable Drinking water Irrigation All GP Pradhan's village reserved for woman *pradhan's village (1) (2) 38.9 -33 (12) (16) GP where woman is helped Pradhan's village reserved for woman *pradhan's village (3) (4) 37 -51 (11) (22) 0.52 (1.5) 3.05 (2.4) 0.27 (1.6) -2.71 (2.2) 0.19 (0.058) -0.13 (0.098) 0.19 (0.058) -0.1 (0.150) Sanitation 1.69 (0.88) -1.56 (0.94) 1.67 (0.86) -1.23 (1.04) Biogas 0.42 (0.15) -0.081 (0.28) 0.45 (0.15) -0.11 (0.40) Informal education 0.029 (0.085) 0.02 (0.061) 0.012 (0.062) -0.0076 (0.120) Adult education 0.31 (0.080) -0.23 (0.110) 0.32 (0.081) -0.26 (0.110) 0.47 (0.12) -0.5 (0.18) 0.47 (0.12) -0.66 (0.22) All invesments cumulated 42.6 (12) -32.2 (17) 40 (11) -55.9 (23) All invesments cumulated, GP reserved for SC/ST 21.7 (6.7) -21.8 (11.4) 22.2 (6.7) -33 (18.8) Road Formal education Number of observations 477 384 Notes: (1) each row gives the result from a separate regression of the dependent variable on gp population, a dummy for woman reservation, a dummy for pradhan's village and the interaction between pradhan's village and woman reservation dummies. Only the last two coefficients are reported. (2) standard errors in parentheses (3) Standard errors are corrected for clustering at the GP level (4) Variables in this table are defined as in table 8 (5) There are 218 observations for the last line, column (1) and (2), and 170 for the last line, column (3) and (4) Table 10: Effect of women's reservation in selected sub-sample All GP (1) PANEL A: PRADHAN'S EXPERIENCE Elected in GP council before 1998 Elected as Pradhan before 1998 Difference between GP reserved for women and unreserved GP Previous pradhan's GP will be reserved GP is reserved constituency reserved in 2003 for SC/ST (2) (3) (4) 0.15 (.08) -0.35 (.13) -0.08 (.04) 0.13 (.12) -0.15 (.22) -0.02 (.03) 0.14 (.23) 0.09 (.05) 0.10 (.06) 0.11 (.06) 0.10 (.06) Revenue collection in the GP (without control for GP population) -24904 (9410) -23450 (9985) -15871 (8398) -21300 (12400) Number of drinking water facilities newly built or repaired Condition of roads (1 if in good condition) Number of new biogas facilities 9.09 (4.02) 0.18 (.06) 0.20 (.08) 0.09 (.03) 0.06 (.03) 0.18 (.08) -0.15 (.07) 8.44 (5.5) 0.21 (.07) 0.17 (.12) 0.09 (.04) 0.07 (.04) 0.09 (.09) -0.13 (.08) 10.14 (5.25) 0.21 (.06) 0.21 (.12) 0.08 (.04) 0.06 (.03) 0.15 (.09) -0.13 (.08) 10.59 (6.01) 0.25 (.08) 0.22 (.15) 0.09 (.04) 0.09 (.05) 0.23 (.12) -0.14 (.1) -0.22 (.08) 3.11 (1.67) -0.19 (.1) 2.34 (2.14) -0.22 (.09) 3.40 (1.82) -0.25 (.11) 0.87 (2.48) Will not run again -0.34 (.12) -0.12 (.05) 0.13 (.07) -0.26 (.08) 0.00 PANEL B: WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION Have women addressed a complaint to the GP in the last 6 months PANEL C: PUBLIC GOODS Nuber of of adult education centers newly built or repaired 1 if a new tubewell was built in the GP 1 if a metal road was built or repaired in the GP 1 if there is an informal education center in the GP PANEL C: MONITORING Pradhan reports that low teacher attendance is a problem. (GP) Number of health workers or doctor visits in the last 6 months (for village with at least 1 visit). Note (1) Column 2 presents the difference between the mean of the dependent variable in GPs reserved for women and GP where the previous Pradhan was prevented from re-election due to a reservation of his boot There are 55 GP (110 villages) reserved for women, and 51 GP (102 villages) where the previous pradhan's boot is reserved (2) Column 3 presents the difference between the mean of the dependent variable in GP reserved for women and GP that will be reserved for woman in 2003 There are 55 GP (110 villages) reserved for women, and 52 GP (146 villages) (3) Colum 4 presents the difference between the mean of the dependent variable in GP reserved for a woman SC/ST and GP reserved for a SC/ST There are 78 GP (146 villages) reserved for SC and ST, including 28 reserved for women as well (4) Standard errors are in parentheses, and are corrected for correlation at the GP level in the village level regressions.