University:
College
Course:
College Psychology
Academic year:

2022
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469

Pages:

96
Author:

Anika Alvarez

MOTIVATION 1 Motivation A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior Bodily conditions (low blood sugar) Cue in the environment (AP Test/College Success) Emotion - Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior Perspectives on Motivation Four perspectives to explain motivation include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Instinct Theory Drive-Reduction Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives I. Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout the species and are not learned—(wired genetically) Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc. © Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile Humans are flexible, animals who follow strict instincts are not. Most significant human behaviors are learned II. Drive-Reduction Theory (Bodily Needs) When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. Drive Reduction The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state – balance. The regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level Drive Reduction Food Empty Stomach Stomach Full (Food Deprived) Organism Drive Reduction Incentives—positive or negative stimuli (from the environment) that lure or repel us. Criticism—if the needs are met, then we would not do anything. Not all motives are driven by need III Optimum Arousal Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it. Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the absence of a need-based drive. Arousal Theory • People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment • Yerkes-Dodson law – States that there is an optimal level of arousal for best performance on any task – The more complex/difficult the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance – With simple/easy task, high level of arousal is needed 9 Yerkes-Dodson Law 10 IV. Hierarch of Needs Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, selfesteem, and the need for recognition. (1908-1970) 11 Hierarch of Needs 12 Two types of drives •Primary drive -Unlearned drive based on a physiological state found in all animals -Motivate behavior necessary for survival -Hunger, thirst and sex •Secondary drive -Learned drive – wealth or success •Problem with Drive-Reduction – once homeostasis is achieved we’d never do anything •Not just balance we’re looking for 13 Sexual Motivation  Sex  a physiologically based motive (testosterone, limbic system, pheromones)  but it is more affected by learning and values 14 Sexual Motivation  Same drives, different attitudes 15 Sexual Motivation  Births to unwed parents 16 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation • Intrinsic motivation – Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself – Children playing is an example • Extrinsic motivation – Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment – A bonus program is an example 17 Social Conflict Situations • Conflict – torn in different directions by opposing motives that block you from attaining a goal • Approach-Approach Conflict – involves two positive options, only one of which you can have. • Approach-Avoidance Conflict – involves both a positive and negative consequences. 18 EMOTION 19 I. Theories Emotions are a mix of 1) physiological activation 2) expressive behaviors 3) conscious experience. 20 Controversy 1) Does physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience? 2) Does cognition (thinking) precede emotion (feeling)? 21 Commonsense View When you become happy, your heart starts beating faster. First comes conscious awareness, then comes physiological activity. Bob Sacha 22 James-Lange Theory William James & Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the commonsense view. The James-Lange Theory • Physiological activity precedes the emotional experience. • Our awareness of our physiological arousal leads to conscious experience of emotion 23 Cannon-Bard Theory Walter Cannon & Phillip Bard emotion-triggering stimulus & the body's arousal take place simultaneously. One Does Not cause the other. 24 Two-Factor Theory (Schechter & Singer) Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggests our physiology and cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors– physical arousal and cognitive label (interpretation). 25 Facial Feedback Theory • Charles Darwin • Sensations from facial expressions and becoming aware of them is what lead to emotional experience • We can improve our mood by simply smiling • Most connected to James-Lange 26 II. Embodied Emotion We know that emotions involve bodily responses Example: • butterflies in our stomach when fear arises • neurons activated in the brain. 27 Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System During an emotional experience, our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body that arouses us. 28 Arousal and Performance Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal, but optimal performance varies with task difficulty. 29 Physiological Similarities Physiological responses related to the emotions of fear, anger, love, and boredom are very similar. M. Grecco/ Stock Boston Excitement and fear involve a similar physiological arousal. 30 Physiological Differences Physical responses -- like finger temperature and movement of facial muscles, change during fear, rage, and joy. Brain activity -- The amygdala shows differences in activation during the emotions of anger and rage. Activity of the left hemisphere (happy) is different from the right (depressed) for emotions. 31 III. Cognition and Emotion What is the connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion)? Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking? 32 A. Cognition Can Define Emotion An arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next Reuters/ Corbis AP Photo/ Nati Harnik Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which may lead to rioting. 33 What happens after a Lakers Game? 34 • Spillover Effect – physical reactions & cognition (to things around us) impact how we feel –Schachter-Singer experiment (2 factor Theory) arousal + label = emotion –Injected with hormones • Told to expect such arousal participants felt little emotion • When told it would not have any effect they felt greater emotions Spillover Effect • Sexually aroused individuals tend to act more hostile in anger-provoking situations (Teenagers in school) • Arousal that lingers after an intense argument may lead to intense passion (“Make-up” Sex) 36 B. Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion Without complicated cognition emotions can be primed A subliminally presented happy face can encourage subjects to drink more than when presented with an angry face (Berridge & Winkeilman, 2003). 37 Neural pathway Emotions are felt directly through the amygdala (a) or through the cortex (b) for analysis. 38 39 When fearful eyes were subliminally presented to subjects, fMRI scans revealed higher levels of activity in the amygdala (Whalen et al. 2004). Courtesy of Paul J. Whalen, PhD, Dartmouth College, www.whalenlab.info 40 Two Routes to Emotion Cognitive Appraisal Theory • Zajonc and LeDoux emphasize that some emotions are immediate, without conscious appraisal. • Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer emphasize that appraisal also determines emotions. 41 Expressed Emotion Emotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice. Is this nonverbal language of emotion universal? 42 Detecting Emotion Most of us are good at deciphering emotions through nonverbal communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than a single happy face (Fox et al, 2000). 43 Detecting Emotion Hard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions you may be trying to conceal. A forced smile may continue for more than 4-5 seconds while a genuine smile will have faded by then. Dr. Paul Elkman, University of California at San Francisco 44 Which of Paul Ekman’s smiles is genuine? Hindu Dance In classical Hindu dance, the body is trained to effectively convey 10 different emotions. Network Photographers/ Alamy 45 Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men. When shown sad, happy, and scary film clips women expressed more emotions than men. 46 Culture and Emotional Expression When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did fairly well at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989). Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion 47 Emotions are Adaptive Darwin speculated that our ancestors communicated with facial expressions in the absence of language. Nonverbal facial expressions led to our ancestor’s survival. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) 48 Analyzing Emotion Analysis of emotions are carried on different levels. 49 The Effects of Facial Expression If facial expressions are manipulated, like furrowing brows, people feel sad while looking at sad pictures. Courtesy of Louis Schake/ Michael Kausman/ The New York Times Pictures Attaching two golf tees to the face and making their tips 50 touch causes the brow to furrow. Experienced Emotion Izard (1977) isolated 10 emotions. Most of them are present in infancy, except for contempt, shame, and guilt. Tom McCarthy/ Rainbow Patrick Donehue/ Photo Researchers, Inc. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Nancy Brown/ The Image Bank Marc Grimberg/ The Image Bank Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit Lew Merrim/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 51 Anger Anger “carries the mind away,” (Virgil, 70-19 B.C.), but “makes any coward brave,” (Cato 234149 B.C.). 52 Causes of Anger 1. People generally become angry with friends and loved ones who commit wrongdoings, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable. 2. People are also angered by foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, and aches and pains. 53 Catharsis Hypothesis Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release or “catharsis.” Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit-forming. 54 Cultural & Gender Differences 1. 2. 3. Boys respond to anger by moving away from that situation, while girls talk to their friends or listen to music. Anger breeds prejudice. The 9/11 attacks led to an intolerance towards immigrants and Muslims. The expression of anger is more encouraged in cultures that do not promote group behavior than in cultures that do promote group behavior. Wolfgang Kaehler 55 Happiness People who are happy perceive the world as being safer. They are able to make decisions easily, are more cooperative, rate job applicants more favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied lives. 56 Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon When we feel happy we are more willing to help others. 57 Emotional Ups and Downs Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less the same throughout the day. 58 Emotional Ups and Downs Over the long run, our emotional ups and downs tend to balance. Although grave diseases can bring individuals emotionally down, most people adapt. Courtesy of Anna Putt 59 Wealth and Well-being Many people in the West believe that if they were wealthier, they would be happier. However, data suggests that they would only be happy temporarily. 60 Wealth and Well-being 1. In affluent societies, people with more money are happier than people who struggle for their basic needs. 2. People in rich countries are happier than people in poor countries. 3. A sudden rise in financial conditions makes people happy. However, people who live in poverty or in slums are also satisfied with their life. 61 Does Money Buy Happiness? Wealth is like health: Its utter absence can breed misery, yet having it is no guarantee of happiness. 62 Happiness & Satisfaction Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries shows Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer countries) at the top of the list. 63 Values & Life Satisfaction Students who value love more than money report higher life satisfaction. 64 Happiness & Prior Experience Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like the adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to income levels. “Satisfaction has a short half-life” (Ryan, 1999). 65 Happiness & Others’ Attainments Happiness is not only relative to our past, but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation is the perception that we are relatively worse off than those we compare ourselves with. 66 Predictors of Happiness Why are some people generally more happy than others? 67 Stress & Health ..\Consciousness\Fight and flight response.mp4.flv Psychological states cause physical illness. Stress is any circumstance (real or perceived) that threatens a person’s well-being. Lee Stone/ Corbis When we feel severe stress, our ability to cope with it is impaired. 68 Stress & Health Stress can be adaptive. In a fearful or stress- causing situation, we can run away and save our lives. Stress can be maladaptive. If it is prolonged (chronic stress), it increases our risk of illness & health problems. 69 Stress & Stressors stress stimulus vs. response Stress is a slippery concept. At times it is the stimulus (missing an appointment) & at other times it is a response (sweating while taking a test). 70 Stress & Stressors Stress is not merely a stimulus or a response. It is a process by which we appraise & cope with environmental threats & challenges. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works When short-lived or taken as a challenge, stressors may have positive effects. Prolonged or threatening stress can be harmful. 71 The Stress Response System ..\Consciousness\Managing Stress - Fight or Flight clip.flv Cannon (1920s)proposed that the stress response (fast) was a fight-or-flight response marked by the outpouring of epinephrine & norepinephrine from the inner adrenal glands, increasing heart & respiration rates, mobilizing sugar & fat, & dulling pain. Alternatives to StressWithdrawal / Tend & befriend ..\Consciousness\The Science of Stress Physiology Emotions Fight Flight.flv 72 General Adaptation Syndrome ..\Consciousness\Seyle's GAS - Psychology.mp4 EPA/ Yuri Kochetkov/ Landov According to Selye, a stress response to any kind of stimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes through three phases. 73 Stressful Life Events Catastrophic Events: earthquakes, combat stress, floods etc. lead individuals to become depressed, sleepless, & anxious. 74 Significant Life Changes Loved one’s death, Divorce, Jobloss Home purchase , A promotion, Marriage, may leave individuals vulnerable to disease. 75 Daily Hassles MOST significant sources of stress & can damage health … Rush hour traffic, long lines, job stress, burnt-out ……. It’s the response that matters Others: Poverty, unemployment, solo parenting, overcrowding etc. http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/science/health-human-body-sci/human-body/science-stress-sci/ 76 Stress & the Heart Stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle. Plaque in coronary artery Artery clogged 77 Personality Types Type A - term used for competitive, harddriving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. What Is a Type A Personality_.mp4 Type B refers to easygoing, relaxed people (Friedman and Rosenman, 1974). Type A vs. Type B.mp4 Type A personalities are more at risk for coronary heart disease. 78 Pessimism and Heart Disease Pessimistic adult men are twice as likely to develop heart disease over a 10-year period (Kubzansky et al., 2001). 79 Stress & Susceptibility to Disease A psychophysiological illness is any stress-related physical illness such as hypertension & some headaches. Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is a developing field in which the health effects ofpsychological, neural, & endocrine processes on the immune system are studied. Stress effects our resistance to disease 80 Psychoneuroimmunology B lymphocytes fight bacterial infections, T lymphocytes attack cancer cells & viruses, & microphages ingest foreign substances. During stress, energy is mobilized away from the immune system making it vulnerable. Lennart Nilsson/ Boehringer Ingelhein International GmbH 81 Stress & Colds People with the highest life stress scores were also the most vulnerable when exposed to an experimental cold virus. 82 Stress and AIDS Stress & negative emotions may accelerate the progression from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Stress and Cancer Stress does not create cancer cells. Researchers disagree on whether stress influences the progression of cancer. However, they do agree that avoiding stress & having a hopeful attitude cannot reverse advanced cancer. Health-Related Consequences Stress can have a variety of health-related consequences. 84 Behavioral Medicine Psychologists and physicians have developed an interdisciplinary field of behavioral medicine that integrates behavioral knowledge with medical knowledge. Mind and body interact; everything psychological is simultaneously physiological. 85 Promoting Health Promoting health is generally defined as the absence of disease. We only think of health when we are diseased. However, health psychologists say that promoting health begins by preventing illness & enhancing well-being, which is a constant endeavor. 86 Coping with Stress Reducing stress by changing events that cause stress or by changing how we react to stress is called problem-focused coping. Emotion-focused coping is when we cannot change a stressful situation, and we respond by attending to our own emotional needs. 87 Perceived Control Research with rats & humans indicates that the absence of control over stressors is a predictor of health problems. 88 Explanatory Style People with an optimistic (instead of pessimistic) explanatory style tend to feel they have more control over stressors, cope better with stressful events, have better moods, & have a stronger immune system. 89 Social Support Bob Daemmrich/ Stock, Boston Supportive family members, marriage partners, & close friends help people cope with stress. Their immune functioning calms the cardiovascular system & lowers blood pressure. 90 Managing Stress Effects Having a sense of control, an optimistic explanatory style, & social support can reduce the experience of stress & improve health But there are other ways to MANAGE STRESS 91 Aerobic Exercise Many studies suggest that aerobic exercise can elevate mood & well-being. 10 min = 2 hrs. of increased well being • raises energy (vigor) • increases self-confidence, • lowers tension, depression, & anxiety. Sustained Exercise that increases heart rate & lung function strengthens the body Heart, increases blood flow, keeps blood vessels open, lowers BP & BP reaction to stress 92 Biofeedback, Relaxation, & Meditation Biofeedback systems use electronic devices to inform people about their physiological responses & gives them the chance to bring their response to a healthier range. Not found to be particularly effective. Relaxation & meditation have proven effects in reducing tension & anxiety. Walking, talking, laughing, smiling, spirituality can reduce stress. RELAXATION RESPONSE 93 Life-Style Modification Modifying a Type-A lifestyle may reduce a second heart attack. Spirituality & Faith Communities Regular religious attendance has been a reliable predictor of a longer life span with a reduced risk of dying. 94 Intervening Factors Investigators suggest there are three factors that connect religious involvement & better health. 95 Modifying Illness-Related Behaviors • Smoking – Social – Cultural – Biological • Weight control & Obesity – Healthy diet – Exercise – Physiology – Metabolism 96