Organizational Change Types of change ● Planned Change pg. 177 ○ Organizations are confronted with environmental problems or with internal contingencies that suggest that “current ways of doing things” are not effective. ● Unplanned Change pg. 183 ○ The crisis is unplanned change ○ crisis evolves into three stages ■ pre-crisis ■ Crisis ■ Post-crisis ○ Communication must deal with internal and external constituencies Issues occurring with change pg. 179 ● lack of management support ● Top managers forcing change ● Inconsistent action by key managers ● Unrealistic expectations ● Lack of meaningful participation ● Poor communication ● The purpose of the program was not clear ● Responsibility for change not properly identified Ways of communicating change pros and cons pg.181 ● Spray and Pray - Management showers employees with all kinds of info in the hope that employees will be able to sort out significant and insignificant info ● Tell and Sell- Management selects a limited set of messages regarding core organizational issues. Management “tells” employees about these issues and then sell employees on the wisdom of the chosen approach. ● Underscore and Explore- Management focuses on fundamental issues related to change success and allows employees the creative freedom to explore various possibilities ● Identify and Reply- management listens to and identifies key concerns of employees and then responds to those issues as they are brought up. ● Withhold and Uphold- Management withholds info as much as possible. When management is confronted with questions or rumors, they uphold the party line. Technology in the Workplace Characteristics of new technologies ● Faster message transmission ● Geographically dispersed participants ● Asynchronous communication Emergent aspects of technology ● ● ● ● ● Collaboration Viral communication Anonymity Has one memory storage and retrieval Communicative ques Media Richness Theory ● “Media richness theorists then combine the notion of task ambiguity with the notion of media richness and argue that managers will choose media that match the ambiguity of the message” (240). ● Page 241 Social Information Processing Model ○ Page 243 in the textbook! ○ “As this figure illustrates, this approach sees the use of communication technology as a complex function of (1) the objective characteristics of the task and media, (2) past experience and knowledge, (3) individual differences, and (4) social information. Because the model shows the objective characteristics of task and media (i.e., task ambiguity and media richness) as influencing media use, it can be seen as an extension of the media richness theory. In support of the social information processing model, evidence suggests that communication patterns do have an influence on technology adoption.” (page 242)!! ● Effects of the Social Information Processing Model ○ Excess information ○ Social media in the workplace and as an organizing mechanism ○ Virtual organizing and telework ■ Working from home ■ Virtual team ■ Questions of productivity and connectivity Paradoxes of telework and virtual organizing 1. Increased flexibility and structure 1. ”One of the attractions of telework is the increased flexibility afforded to the employee. However, telework also requires the manager to keep better track of schedules and meetings because “chance encounters and informal discussions do not occur” (249). 2. Greater individuality and more teamwork 1. “Teleworkers are isolated on an individual basis, but they are also required to coordinate work to a high degree. For example, Hylmo and Buzzanell (2002) report that the telecommuters they studied often saw basic procedures as “mysterious” because they were expected to be independent and yet still adapt to the rules and regulations of the central organization” (249). 3. More responsibility and less control 1. “The nature of telework requires tasks that can be accomplished independently. However, managers often fear losing control of workers who are out of sight (Fritz, Narashim & Rhee, 1998). Similarly, teleworkers fear that if they are out of sight, they will be less likely to be considered for promotions” (249). Page 249 Organizational Diversity ● Organizational obstacles for women and minorities ○ Glass ceiling: Women make up 47% of the workforce, but less than 4% of CEO positions are held by women (textbook page 219) ○ Equal pay: Women make 93 cents to 1 dollar compared to men (textbook page 217) ○ Mommy track → mothers sacrifice promotions and pay raises in order to take time off and raise a child (textbook page 219) ○ Black individuals with lighter skin had a higher chance of being hired than those with darker skin (textbook page 218) ● Relational barriers and opportunities ○ Limited access to or exclusion from informal communication networks (textbook page 220) ○ Developing differentiated networks rather than just affinity groups (textbook page 220) ○ Mentoring (textbook page 220) ○ Tokenism → one marginalized person in a certain role represents the larger group (textbook page 221) ● Six dimensions of a multicultural organization (textbook page 223-224) ○ 1) Acculturation → 2 groups adapt to each other and resolve cultural differences ○ 2) Structural integration → cultural profiles of organization members, including hiring, job placement, and job status profiles ○ 3) Informal integration → inclusion of minorityculture members in informal networks and activities outside of normal working hours ○ 4) Cultural bias → prejudice and discrimination ○ 5) Organizational identification → feelings of belonging, loyalty, and commitment to the organization ○ 6) Intergroup conflict → friction, tension, and power struggles between cultural groups ● The business case for diversity (textbook page 226) ○ Cost → companies who handle diversity well will create cost advantages ○ Resource-acquisition → companies with good reputations for managing diversity will win the competition for the best personnel and reputation ○ Marketing → companies can improve cultural sensitivity through effort (market to subpopulations) ○ Creativity → diversity of perspectives and less emphasis on conformity to norms promote creativity ○ Problem-solving → heterogeneity in decision making and problem-solving produces better choices, more perspectives, and critical analysis ○ Systems flexibility → less determinant, less standardized, and therefore more fluid to environmental changes Decision Making Rational Model ● ● ● ● ● ● Define Problem Gather information Develop potential solutions Evaluate solution alternatives Select one alternative Implement the alternative Critiques: ● Humans don't always find the best information before making decisions ○ We cannot absorb and use all the information available to us ○ Time pressure ○ Intuition ○ Satisficing ■ Trying to find the best option instead of perfect Political Model (self-interests) ● Get preferred solutions on the table ● Build cases against other solutions ● Get the group to converge on the preferred solutions ● Implement solutions Critique: May become harmful to the organization Garbage Can Model ● ● ● ● Problems, solutions, opportunities all are put into a mix of possibilities Not well defined Haphazard Solutions may be made for problems that do not exist or choices may be made that don't solve problems Critiques: ● ● ● ● Not well defined Haphazard Solutions may be made for problems that do not exist Choices may be made that don't solve problems Groupthink ● Janis, early 1970s ● A mode of thinking in which the desire for agreement overrides the ability to realistically appraise alternative courses of action ○ Causes ■ Pressure towards uniformity ■ Close-mindedness ■ Overestimation ○ How to avoid ■ Create an open climate for discussion ■ Avoid insulating groups ■ Try not to be too directive ■ Assign critical evaluators ■ Build structures that invite critique Conflict: Definition of conflict: "the interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims, and values, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with realization of these goals" ● the 3 important elements of this definition: incompatible goals, interdependent behavior, and interaction Levels of conflict: ● interpersonal: conflict between 2 people ● intergroup: conflict between 2 different groups ● inter-organizational: conflict between 2 organizations Pondy's conflict phases: latent conflict -> perceived conflict-> felt conflict-> manifest conflict-> conflict resolution of suppression-> conflict aftermath ● latent conflict: all factors exist that could lead to potential conflict. Types of latent conflict: competition for, scarce resources, drive for autonomy, the divergence of goals, role conflict ● perceived conflict: may not actually be real conflict and could simply be a misunderstanding ● felt conflict: when conflict is not only perceived but brought into reality and consciousness. conflict is personalized in this stage ● manifest conflict: when individuals actually engage in behaviors and respond to the felt conflict through interaction ● conflict resolution/suppression: conflict is either resolved or suppressed ● conflict aftermath: the resolution of conflict impacts the aftermath of the conflict. If conflict is resolved, it lays a foundation for positive conflict resolution in the future. if the conflict is not resolved, the frustration may stay with the individual and cause more conflict down the road. Thomas' conflict styles grid: Critiques of Thomas' conflict styles grid: ● does not take into account changes in one's conflict styles ● does not acknowledge other factors ● does not take into account the organizational setting Factors influencing conflict: (PG 169-170) ● personal factors: personality actually plays a small role in conflict resolution strategies, and findings on gender are mixed. the way an individual frames a conflict will influence the manner in which the conflict is managed ● relational factors: the relationship between the conflict parties appears to have a strong impact on conflict resolution. For example, power is an important relational factor between conflict parties ● cultural factors: aspects of organizational, national, and ethnic culture may influence the ways in which conflict is enacted and managed in organizations Emotions in the Workplace o Elements of emotional intelligence: understanding of emotions to serve goals and effectively handle relationships; Self-awareness: understanding your emotions and how they affect you, the foundation of emotional intelligence Self-management: use awareness of emotion to stay flexible and direct behavior positively Empathy: pick up on emotions of others and see what’s going on, management to have appropriate conversations for all involved o Emotional labor vs. emotional work ● Emotional labor: expected to display feelings to fit the role; to satisfy the organization (customer service); it is referred to jobs in which workers are expected to display certain feelings in order to satisfy organizational roles expectations. ● Hochschild argues that when performing emotional labor, workers can engage in either surface acting or deep acting. ● Emotional work: genuine emotion on the job (trauma unit); Type of emotion in the workplace - make a forceful case for looking not at the nature of the job but at relationships with others in the workplace as a major source of organizational emotion. Leadership (Grace and Sondra) (ch. 10, pg. 186) Theories of Leadership Great Man ● Leaders are born and not made and possess certain traits. ● Great leaders can arise when there is a great need. ● Leadership is inherited, born into positions, privileged families, elitist (mid 19th century)--Rockefellers, Kennedys Trait ● Early thinking that leaders are born, not made. ● There are particular qualities that will tend to be associated with leaders and that will result in success in leadership activities. ● The most common traits associated with leadership are intelligence (verbal ability, perceptual ability, and reasoning), self-confidence (the belief that one can make a difference), determination (the persistent desire to get the job done), integrity (honesty and trustworthiness), and sociability (being friendly and outgoing). Situational ● Leaders are essentially people who know their goals and have the power to influence the thoughts and actions of others to garner their support and cooperation to achieve these goals. ● When it comes to leaders, these goals are rarely personal and generally serve the larger good. ● This theory says that the same leadership style cannot be practiced in all situations, depending upon the circumstance and environmental context the leadership style also changes. ● The pioneers of this theory were Kenneth Blanchard and Paul Hersey. Humanistic ● Leaders are developed; Likert--enabling others; Frances Hesselbein--Girl Scouts 1976 through 1990--developing potential, abilities through activities. ● Humanistic leadership is about trusting others, being ethical, having compassion, and participating as a collective whole. ● A humanistic leadership system has a clear and aligned vision, mission, values, and expected behaviors. ● Dignity and worth of each team member. Behavioral ● How leaders' behavior affects behaviors of others and vice versa. ● The success of a leader is based on their behavior rather than their natural attributes. ● Behavioral leadership theory involves observing and evaluating a leader's actions and behaviors when they are responding to a specific situation. LMX ● The LMX model proposes that leaders develop different (and perhaps more or less effective) leadership relationships with different subordinates. The idea of