Environmental Science Final Exam Study Guide

Environmental Science Final Exam Study Guide Module 1 – Introduction to Environmental Science Environmental Science – a combination of biology, chemistry, and physics while also including issues from health, politics, economics, and ethics; studies how humans impact the organisms and surroundings ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 2 – Understanding Our Environment Key Terms Environmental Science – the study of how humans impact the environment Agriculture – the practice of breeding, growing, and caring for animals and plants for food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and other uses Ecology – the study of the interaction among living things and with their non-living environment Natural Resource – materials or substances such as minerals, forests, water, and fertile land that occur in nature and can be used for economic gain Botany – the study of plants Pollution – refers to undesired changes in soil, water, or air, which seriously impacts the activities, health, and survival of living things Geology – the study of the Earth's interior processes, history, and surface Biodiversity – the variety and number of species that inhabit a particular area Hydrology – the study of the Earth's water resources Law of Supply and Demand – states that a product becomes more valuable if it has a great demand but is in short supply Biology – the study of living organisms Ecological Footprint – indicates the productive area required to support one individual in a specific country, by estimating the land area used for agriculture and housing, the ocean area used for fishing, and the forest area required for absorbing air pollution caused by fossil fuels Zoology – the study of animals Sustainability – situation in which human needs are satisfied in a manner that guarantees the survival of future generations Learning Objectives • Define environmental science and its importance to society Importance: to solve environmental issues • Discuss the five major fields of study that contribute to environmental science Ecology, Biology, Zoology, Geology, Chemistry • Distinguish between renewable and nonrenewable resources Renewable – resource that can be used repeatedly and replaced naturally Nonrenewable – natural substance that is not replenished with the speed at which it is consumed • Explain “The Tragedy of the Commons” Conflict of interest is a key reason why certain societies may grapple with environmental problems. This conflict of interest involves the short-term interest of an individual and the long-term welfare of his or her community. Using the example of commons, areas of land in which all villagers could graze their livestock, an individual or society must assume responsibility for maintaining a natural resource; failure may lead to resources becoming overused. Within these commons, an individual would be tempted to graze as much livestock as possible without regard for the fact that the commons would eventually become depleted and deny future generations the opportunity to use them. The tendency to overuse the commons would eventually inspire the shift to closed fields, which had individual owners who were more cautious not to graze a lot of livestock on the fields for fear of depleting them 1 Key Concepts • Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary study derived from several other fields • Hunter-Gatherer societies impacted the environment by setting fires to clear grasslands • Agricultural revolution – the change that occurred in human societies as a result of their adoption of agriculture • Industrial revolution – period during which energy sources for human activities shifted from running water and animal power, to fossil fuels, such as oil and coal • Environmental problems related to population growth: pollution, exhaustion of topsoil, and extinction of animals Important People/Events • Hunter-Gatherers Various societies would pick wild fruits and hunt wild animals as their food. There are still several hunter-gatherer societies that inhabit the rainforests of the Amazon River, as well as in New Guinea. These societies altered their environments by sometimes cutting down trees or burning them to easily hunt their prey. The bow and arrow was the primary weapon of hunter-gatherers for centuries. • Garrett Hardin Published the “Tragedy of Commons” in 1968 ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 3 – Using the Scientific Method and Models Key Terms Observation – the act of gathering data through our senses, such as smell, sight, touch, and hearing Statistics – the process of collecting and classifying data into numbers Hypothesis – a testable explanation or idea that provides the foundation for the subsequent scientific investigation Mean – the average; provides a single measure for a certain population Prediction – a logical statement about what might happen if the hypothesis is correct Distribution – the way members of a statistical population are relatively arranged Control Group – a study sample that does not receive experimental treatment Sample – a group of events or individuals that represent the population that is the focus of the study Experimental Group – receives experimental treatment Risk – refers to the likelihood of an unwanted outcome Data – information collected from an experiment often in numeric form Models – representations of systems or objects Correlations – relationships between two or more phenomena Values – our important standards or principles, guide decisions on environmental issues Learning Objectives • Identify all of the steps in the experimental method Observing, Hypothesizing/Predicting, Experimenting, Organizing/Analyzing Data, Drawing Conclusions, Repeating Experiments, Communicating Results • Explain and have examples of what makes a good scientist Curious, open-minded, honest, creative • Define statistics and explain how scientists use statistics Statistics guides scientists in summarizing, analyzing and comparing data for the purpose of understanding it • Distinguish between the four models (physical, graphical, conceptual and mathematical) Physical – 3-D models that can be touched and closely resemble the systems or objects that they represent Graphical – charts and maps Conceptual – a verbal or graphical representation of a system or phenomena Mathematical – one or more equations used to represent many common situations especially those that have many variables 2 • Understand the steps of the decision-making model Gather information, Consider Values, Explore Consequences, Make a Decision Key Concepts • The experimental method are steps used by scientists to identify and answer questions • Good scientists must be open-minded, intellectually honest and creative to identify patterns • Statistics are used in everyday life as they may appear as wild guesses or gut instinct Important People/Events • Jane Goodall Her persistent studies on an African chimpanzee troop provided useful knowledge on that species. She was curious to the extent that she eventually could understand the personality and behavior of all the troop members • John Snow He was able to realize that most of the cholera victims had used the same public water pump on Broad Street. By shutting off this polluted water source, authorities were successful in preventing further deaths thanks to the creativity and imagination of Snow ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 4 – Our Changing Earth Key Terms Crust – the outer layer of Earth and is made entirely of light elements Evaporation Lithosphere – the outermost layer and comprises the crust and upper part of the mantle, split into tectonic plates Condensation – occurs when the water vapor cools to form water droplets that combine to form clouds Tectonic Plates – arise out of a subdivision of the lithosphere, which glide across the underlying asthenosphere Precipitation – when clouds later fall back to Earth's surface as rain Erosion – the eradication and transport of Earth surface material Salinity – the extent of the concentration of dissolved salts in the ocean Atmosphere – contains various gases that constitute the air that living things breathe; function is to insulate Earth's surface by slowing the rate at which it loses heat Aquifer – a rock layer that stores and allows the flow of groundwater Radiation – occurs when the energy transfer occurs across space and mechanisms such as when one stands in front of a fireplace Recharge Zone – the surface of the land where water enters an aquifer Conduction – occurs when heat flows from a warmer object to a cold object when the objects are placed in direct physical contact with each other Biosphere – the section in which life exists Learning Objectives • Understand and know the differences for the composition of the Earth Crust – the outer layer of Earth Mantle – Below the crust, makes up 64 percent of Earth, comprised of rocks of medium density Core – the innermost part of Earth • Explain the how and where of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and mountain formations Occur at plate boundaries during which different tectonic plates glides past one another, collide or move away from one another 3 • Define each of the four layers of the atmosphere Troposphere – nearest to Earth's surface; the site of most weather changes that occur in Earth and is the densest atmospheric layer; an increase in altitude results in a decrease in temperature Stratosphere – characterized by an increase in temperature as the altitude increases Mesosphere – located above the stratosphere, the coldest layer within the atmosphere Thermosphere – farthest from Earth's surface, thin air • Distinguish between energy and heating in the atmosphere Energy from the sun reaches the atmosphere through convection, conduction, and radiation. Heating – solar energy is transferred to Earth via electromagnetic radiation in various forms, such as light, UV rays, and infrared radiation • Identify the differences between the different types of water on Earth Ocean water – dissolved rocks that release salts into the oceans as well as constant volcanic eruptions Fresh water – 3% of all water, majority available in glaciers and ice caps Ground water – the water that sinks into the ground from melting snow or rain, less than 1% of all water, important source of drinking and irrigation water, stored in aquifers Key Concepts • Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions generate from plate tectonics gliding past one another • Erosion refers to the eradication and transport of Earth surface material • Atmosphere is the mixture of gases of Earth including nitrogen, carbon dioxide and others • Earth maintains an appropriate temperature for living things during the Greenhouse Effect • The biosphere is the only layer on Earth’s surface that supports survival of living things Important People/Events • The 1886 Earthquake Proved that earthquakes do not only affect high-risk areas but also medium-risk areas • The Greenhouse Effect Earth maintains an appropriate temperature that is not too cold for living things to survive. It occurs when greenhouses gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane trap some of the heat released by the sun to Earth's surface. ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 5 – Organization of Living Things Key Terms Ecosystem – consists of all organisms that inhabit an area as well as their physical environments Archaebacteria – single-celled, microscopic organisms that reproduce by dividing in half; lack nuclei and usually reside in hot springs Organism – an individual living thing belonging to a species Eubacteria – reside commonly in animals and soil Population – a group of organisms from the same species that live together and reproduce Fungus – has a cell wall and nuclei and consists of an underground network of fibers that absorb nutrients from decaying organisms in dead wood, soil, and other organisms Community – a group of different species or populations that inhabit the same place Protists – make up a large group of single-celled and multi-celled organisms, Ex. Amoeba, algae Habitat – a place where an organism resides based on the suitability of the place to its survival Gymnosperms – woody plants that are alternatively known as conifers because they have needle-like leaves and seeds that are not enclosed in fruits Artificial Selection – an evolutionary process that occurs when human beings breed certain organisms for particular characteristics Invertebrates – animals that do not have backbones Vertebrates – animals that have backbones 4 Resistance – occurs when an organism can tolerate specific chemicals meant to exterminate it by simply breaking it down into harmless parts Learning Objectives • Define an ecosystem and understand how they are connected and their components Components – plants and soil; minerals, nutrients, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, living organisms, and energy • Understand the differences between populations, communities and habitat • Explain the Charles Darwin observation in 1859 on natural selection Organisms in certain habitats differ in the form of function and behavior; the environment tends to favor organisms with certain characteristics; overtime, organisms with these traits are able to survive and reproduce unlike their counterparts who lack these traits • Identify all of the different types of bacteria in the environment Key Concepts • Ecosystems consist of all organisms that inhabit an area as well as their environments • An organism is an individual living thing belonging to a species • The honeycreeper and a flower example of coevolution • Gymnosperms are woody plants, whereas angiosperms are land plants • Vertebrates have backbones, whereas invertebrates do not Important People/Events • A 1993 Scientific Experiment on Gypsy Moths Proved that the environment consists of an interconnected web of organisms whose actions affect each other; discovered that the removal of mice from an oak forest increased the number of gypsy moths, which were their main prey • Charles Darwin Brought to the forefront the role of natural selection in ensuring the survival and reproduction of organisms ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 6 – Ecosystems Key Terms Photosynthesis – process through which plants transform solar energy into sugar molecules Phosphorus Cycle – involves the back-and-forth movement of phosphorus between the environment and organisms Carbon Cycle – process in which the element carbon moves between the atmosphere, organisms, land, and water Nitrogen Cycle – process in which nitrogen moves between the atmosphere, bacteria, and organisms Acid Precipitation Producer – refers to organisms that produce its own food, also known as autotrophs or self-feeders Consumer – an organism that acquires energy by eating other organisms, also known as a heterotroph Food Chain – simple sequential explanation of energy transfer between different organisms when one consumes the other Trophic Level – the various levels in a food chain or web during which energy is transferred from one organism to another Ecological Succession – a gradual change process that an ecosystem undergoes during which some or all of its species are replaced Primary Succession – occurs in a place that had no ecosystem before Secondary Succession – more common where an ecosystem had previously existed Climax Community – refers to a stable and final community that will continue undergoing small changes Old-Field Succession – a man-made secondary succession that occurs when a farmer stops cultivating their field for a lengthy period of time 5 Learning Objectives • How these organisms obtain energy (herbivore, omnivore, carnivore and decomposer) Herbivore – consume producers such as plants Omnivore – eat consumers and producers Carnivore – eat consumers Decomposer – from breaking down dead organisms • Understand each of the cycles of materials and what each process involves Carbon Cycle – Carbon is first converted by producers into carbohydrates through photosynthesis. After consumers eat producers, they obtain carbohydrates before releasing some of the carbon into the atmosphere when their bodies undergo cell respiration Nitrogen Cycle – the role of bacteria in this process is to fix atmospheric nitrogen into chemical compounds that can benefit organisms by providing them with proteins for cell reproduction. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, found in roots of legumes or in the soil, releases the excess nitrogen into the soil. Other organisms, such as animals, obtain nitrogen by consuming plants that are rich in the nitrogen-related compounds. Decomposers are integral to the nitrogen cycle since they break down waste products and harness nitrogen, which is released into the soil Phosphorus Cycle – an important element that aids in cell reproduction as well as formation of teeth and bones in animals. Plants obtain phosphorus from water and soil when rocks erode and dissolve into phosphates that plants can use as food. Animals also provide plants with phosphorus when they excrete excess phosphorus in the form of waste. Later, these animals obtain phosphorus by consuming these plants. Some phosphorus also ends up in bodies of water where they sink to the bottom and become sediment • Distinguish between the primary and secondary succession • Provide examples of each ecological succession in the ecosystem Primary – new islands created out of volcanic eruptions Secondary – new plants begin to grow around area burned down by ash and volcanic debris Key Concepts • A producer produces its own food, while a consumer eats other organisms • Food chain is energy transfer between different organisms when one consumes the other • Acid precipitation occurs when nitric oxide combines with water vapor and oxygen • Ecological succession better explains the changing nature of ecosystems Important People/Events • Adequate Oxygen Levels Adequate oxygen levels in water are essential for the survival of most sea life • Minor Forest Fires Mostly caused by lightning, aid in secondary succession by giving an opportunity for new species of trees, such as Jack Pine, to grow. These fires destroy deadwood and brush that if left to accumulate, can lead to major forest fires. Certain animals also benefit from the new vegetation that grows after a minor forest fire ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 7 – Biomes Key Terms Biome – a large area that has a particular type of climate that effectively influences the types of plants and animals that inhabit each ecosystem Taiga – a northern coniferous forest that stretches just below the Arctic Circle and across the Northern Hemisphere. It is characterized by long winter periods of 6-10 months during which temperatures fall to -10°F Savanna – found in Western India, parts of Africa, some parts of South America, and Northern Australia. Rain only falls for a few months during which time the plants can grow Latitude – the distance north or south of the equator Altitude – the height above sea level Temperate Grasslands – occurs where there is moderate rainfall that is still insufficient for tall trees to grow 6 Tropical Rain Forests – situated in a belt near the equator, are important in enhancing nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon cycles and help in regulation of the global climate. They are always warm and humid, receiving 200-450 cm of rainfall annually Chaparral – a shrub land biome that receives enough rainfall to support the growth of shrubs, despite having a fairly dry climate Emergent Layer – top layer of rain forests, home to the tallest trees Deserts – situated near mountain ranges that block the passage of rain clouds. Due to the lack of moisture in the atmosphere, deserts experience rapid temperature changes that can go from scorching hot in the day time (115°F) to near freezing at night Epiphytes – plants that grow on tall trees to access sunlight Tundra – Situated in the northern arctic regions, characterized by extreme weather conditions that hinder the growth of vegetation Temperate Rain Forests – commonly found in New Zealand, Australia, and North America; characterized by high precipitation levels, moderate temperatures, and high humidity Permafrost – deeper layers of the soil freeze permanently throughout the year Learning Objectives • Explain each of the most common biomes in the world and their ecosystems Tropical Rain Forests – always warm and humid, receiving 200-450 cm of rainfall annually, home to various species of animals and plants Taiga – characterized by long winter periods of 6-10 months during which temperatures fall to -10°F; vegetation has waxy needle-like leaves and seeds; birds eat aquatic food, jumping mice, wolves, lynx, fox Temperate Forests – high precipitation levels, moderate temperatures, and high humidity; various plant species, such as Douglas Fir, Sitka Spruce, Redwood, Pacific Silver Fir, and Western Hemlock • Identify the four different layers of the rain forest in which various plants grow Emergent Layer – top layer of rain forests, home to the tallest trees Upper Canopy – home to trees that can grow to a maximum height of 30 m Lower Canopy – composed of epiphytes, which are plants that grow on tall trees to access sunlight Understory – receives minimal sunlight that only allows the plants to reach a height of 3.5m • Distinguish between savannas, grasslands, chaparrals, deserts and tundra biomes • Understand what permafrost is and its effect in the tundra biome Key Concepts • A biome is a large area with a particular type of climate that effects plants and animals • Epiphytes are plants that grow on tall trees in the lower canopy to access sunlight • Deserts are the driest places on earth because they receive minimal rainfall all-year round • Tundra is characterized by extreme weather conditions that hinder the growth of vegetation Important People/Events • Douglas Fir Trees One of the dominant species in the temperate rainforest • Permafrost Deep layers of the soil freeze permanently throughout the year. The top layer of the permafrost often thaws in the summer, which makes the landscape moist and spongy. In these conditions, various insects, such as mosquitoes and black flies are able to breed ____________________________________________________________________________________ 7 Module 8 – Aquatic Ecosystems Key Terms Wetlands – where land is periodically underwater Marshes – common in low, flat land areas and have little water flow; rushes, cattails, reeds are the most common plants; animal species, such as grebes, ducks, herons, as well as migratory birds from tropical and temperate habitats, frequent marshes in search of fish and insects that are deeply buried in the benthic zone Swamps – common in flat land areas with poor drainage and near streams; the most common animal species include amphibians, such as salamanders and frogs Nekton – a free-swimming organism, including turtles, whales and fish Benthos – those that dwell at the bottom of the aquatic ecosystem, most of which attach themselves to hard surfaces Coastal Wetlands – areas covered by salty water periodically or all the time; helps prevent flooding by absorbing excess rainfall and filter out pollutants. They are popular sites for recreational activities, such as boating, hunting, and fishing Littoral Zone – a nutrient-rich zone that is home to diverse and abundant aquatic life, including pond lilies, cattails, and reeds Benthic Zone – deep areas of aquatic ecosystems, where there is minimal sunlight to enable organisms to produce food using photosynthesis Estuary – forms from a combination of salt water from the ocean and fresh water from the river Salt Marshes – form as a result of deposits of mineral-rich mud into estuaries by rivers; home to many animal species, such as aquatic birds, clams, and fish; important in protecting inland areas and absorbing pollutants Eutrophication – large amounts of plant and algae growth, which leads to an increase in bacteria that feed on these organisms. The increase in bacteria subsequently results in a decrease in oxygen levels in the lake considering these bacteria consume most of the dissolved oxygen in the lake Mangrove Swamps – found in subtropical and tropical areas, are swampy areas characterized by dense growths of mangrove trees, which are adapted to shallow, salty water. They safeguard the coastline from erosion and minimize damage from storms; home to over 2,000 animal species Freshwater Wetlands – help in reducing water pollution by trapping and filtering harmful waste before it washes into freshwater bodies. They help in reducing floods by accommodating extra water that flows in when rivers burst their banks, thus safeguarding property, lives, and homes of people and other living organisms. Furthermore, they are a source of food for most game fish caught in the U.S. and regulating the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by trapping carbon from the waste products Coral Reefs – limestone ridges that are constructed by coral polyps, a tiny coral animal Learning Objectives • Identify each of the freshwater ecosystems and how they can be formed Freshwater ecosystems, such as lakes and rivers, can be formed naturally when groundwater seeps up to Earth's surface. They can also be formed artificially through damming by humans who intentionally adjust the flow of streams and rivers to create dams for irrigation, recreation, water storage, or electricity. • Understand the impact of eutrophication in lakes Increased bacteria results in decrease in oxygen levels, negatively impacts organisms that rely on oxygen for survival • Explain how estuaries form and why they are important to the ecosystem An estuary forms from a combination of salt water and fresh water. The combination of these water bodies is accompanied by formation of currents that result in a muddy sediment that is mineral and nutrient-rich. Just like marshes and swamps, estuaries are an important source of nutrients, such as marsh grass • Understand why and what causes coral reefs to be in danger today The biggest threats to coral reefs include overfishing and pollution. Overfishing destroys the reef ecosystem, which may take long to recover since coral reefs grow slowly. Pollution causes coral bleaching, a whitening of the corals, which may lead to the death of the corals and the reefs themselves. Coral bleaching occurs due to the dissolution of the algae that helps coral manufacture coral reefs 8 Key Concepts • Freshwater ecosystems include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams as well as wetlands • Nekton are free-swimming organisms, while benthos attaches themselves to hard surfaces • The Florida Everglades is the largest freshwater wetland in the country • An estuary forms from a combination of salt water and fresh water • Sunlight only reaches to about 100 meters (330 feet) into the ocean Important People/Events • Eutrophication Excessive plant and algae growth that involves increased bacteria, results in decreased oxygen levels, negatively impacts organisms that rely on oxygen for survival • Overfishing and Pollution The biggest threats to coral reefs include overfishing and pollution. Oceans are increasingly becoming polluted with runoff from fertilized areas, oil spills, sewage, and industrial waste. This poses a danger to the lives of various plant and animal organisms in the ocean. Overfishing and use of poor fishing methods are also a danger to the population of fish in the ocean ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 9 – Exploring Populations Key Terms Population – refers to members of the same species who live together at the same place and time; can be used to refer to a group or to the number of individuals within a group Density – refers to the number of people per volume or unit area Dispersion – the relative arrangement or distribution of individuals within an area Growth Rate – refers to changes in the size of populations due to new births and deaths. It is usually calculated by subtracting the population's death rates from birth rates Reproductive Potential – the ability of a species to produce a certain number of offspring. It determines a species' biotic potential, which is the quickest rate at which its populations can grow Exponential Growth – occurs when populations grow at an exceptionally fast rate Carrying Capacity – the maximum population size that it can comfortably accommodate indefinitely Organism Niche – refers to the role played by a particular organism within its habitat Competition – refers to the relationship between individuals or populations attempting to get enough of a limited resource Predation – when organisms feed on other organisms, in this case known as prey Parasitism – a relationship between a parasite, an organism that lives and feeds on another organism, and a host, the organism being fed on Mutualism – a close relationship between two different organisms that provide mutual benefits to each other Commensalism – characterized by one species benefiting from another species without endangering it Symbiosis – refers to a relationship in which different species live close to each other Learning Objectives • Explain how a population grows and how fast it can grow Various factors, such as health status, determine the population growth rate for various species. It is normal for the population size to remain constant from year-to-year due to these intervening factors • Understand exponential growth and give an example of how it occurs An example is a dog, which may give birth to 6 puppies at once; these puppies may also grow to give birth to 6 puppies resulting in 36 dogs in the second generation • Distinguish between competition and indirect competition Competition refers to the relationship between individuals or populations attempting to get enough of a limited resource. Indirect competition occurs when the competitors for the same resource do not come into direct contact with each other. 9 Key Concepts • Population refers to the same species that live together at the same place and time • Growth rate is calculated by subtracting the population’s death rates from birth rates • Competition within a population is often a fight for territorial or social dominance • Organism niche refers to the role played by a particular organism within its habitat • Ways species interact (predation, mutualism, competition, commensalism and parasitism) Important People/Events • Charles Darwin A population of living organisms is influenced by their interaction with their environment. He came to this conclusion after studying a group of elephants and the way they related to their environment. He further calculated and projected that a single pair of elephants could theoretically produce 19 million offspring within 750 years. • Locusts Directly compete with humans for food ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 10 – Understanding Human Populations Key Terms Demography – involves studying the make-up and historical size of specific populations in order to make comparisons and projections about the population Age Structure – the way ages are distributed within a specific population at a certain period Survivorship – expressed as a percentage, refers to the number of people within a population that are likely to survive to a certain age Fertility Rate – refers to the number of babies born each year for every 1,000 women within a population Infrastructures – the basic services and facilities supporting a community; examples include sewer lines, power plants, subways, roads, water supplies, and hospitals Rapid Growth – can lead to faster depletion of resources within a community Fuelwood – main source of fuel for developing countries for cooking food and boiling water for drinking; mainly deadwood, including branches and twigs Arable Land – land used for crop farming Migration – describes people's movement between places, in which case immigration refers to movement into an area and emigration refers to movement out of an area Urbanization – where people migrate from rural to urban areas in search of better economic opportunities Life Expectancy – the average number of years that members within a population are projected to live Demographic Transition – a model that explains the effects of social and economic changes on population growth rates. It enables us to understand why populations in certain areas increase rapidly before suddenly shrinking in the next century, such as in most developed countries Least Developed Countries – may experience high birth rates, but little industrialization More Developed Countries Learning Objectives • Explain why the human population growth rate experienced growth in the 1800s Due to abundant food and better hygiene thanks to advancements made in science and during the industrial revolution • Understand death rates and explain how it has declined over the last 200 years Death rates have declined because of increased access to adequate food for more people, as well as access to clean water and safe sewage disposal. Infant mortality rates have also declined due to the discovery of vaccines. • Identify what the demographic transition model is and why it matters in populations 10 It is a model that explains the effects of social and economic changes on population growth rates. It enables us to understand why populations in certain areas increase rapidly before suddenly shrinking in the next century, such as in most developed countries • Explain rapid growth and what natural resources are most affected by it The most affected natural resources include land, vegetation, and water. • Distinguish between the least developed countries and the more developed countries Least Developed Countries – areas of the world that experience high birth rates and high death rates and receive large amounts of foreign aid due to their population and environmental problems Key Concepts • Survivorship can be rated as Type I, Type II or Type III Type I is common in developed countries, like Germany and Japan where people get to live until old age. Type II populations are characterized by equal death rates at all age levels. Type III is synonymous with many developing countries where many children die compared to the elderly. • Immigration is movement into an area, while emigration is movement out of an area • Rapid growth can lead to faster depletion of resources within a community • Urbanization is when people migrate from rural to urban areas Important People/Events • Vaccines Impact on Death Rates Vaccines have helped decrease global death rates • Projections to 2050 Demographers project that by the year 2050, the world’s population will peak at 9 billion ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 11 – Biodiversity Key Terms Biodiversity – refers to the amount of selected plant or animal species within a habitat Hybrids – genetic combination of two or more plant materials, which have enhanced food security for humans Ecotourism – type of tourism that focuses on conserving and sustainably developing ecologically unique areas Endangered Species – refers to those that are in extreme danger of extinction if protective measures are not instituted Threatened Species – those whose population is declining and nearing the threat of extinction Poaching – illegal form of hunting Pollution – harmful chemicals that are disposed of inappropriately in the environment pose a great danger to the survival of various plant and animal species Captive Breeding Programs – aim to increase the population of a species faced with extinction by breeding it in captivity before releasing it into its natural habitat Germ Plasm – a form of genetic material, which may include reproductive or germ cells as well as plant cells. The germ plasm, stored as a seed, eggs, sperm, or DNA, will be used in the future for research or species recovery Conservation Strategies – focused on protecting an entire ecosystem and not just particular endangered species Endangered Species Act – the major law that safeguards endangered species from extinction. It mandates the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to identify and list all endangered and threatened species Habitat Conservation Plan – often the product of a trade-off in which both parties agree to protect the affected species across large swathes of land Biodiversity Treaty – an international treaty that aims to preserve biodiversity through prudent and sustainable use of genetic resources worldwide Learning Objectives • Define biodiversity and identify the three different levels (species, genetic and ecosystem) • Distinguish between endangered species and threatened species • Understand how harvesting, hunting and poaching has caused extinction of certain species 11 • Explain what the Endangered Species Act is that passed Congress in 1973 • Understand the Biodiversity Treaty and what groups it affected Conservationists and political groups Key Concepts • Biodiversity refers to the amount of selected plant or animal species within a habitat • Humans cause extinctions by destroying habitats, pollution and overharvesting • Biodiversity hotspots are areas home to endemic species that face extinction • Zoos, aquariums, parks and gardens are like museums that showcase biodiversity • The habitat conservation plan is often the product of a trade-off Important People/Events • Endangered Species Act The major law that safeguards endangered species from extinction. It mandates the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to identify and list all endangered and threatened species • Biodiversity Treaty An international treaty that aims to preserve biodiversity through prudent and sustainable use of genetic resources worldwide ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 12 – Water Resources Key Terms Surface Water – the fresh water that is available in rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams Potable – remove harmful elements, such as arsenic, lead, and mercury from water Watershed – a land area that is drained by a river, this area could endanger a river if it becomes polluted Pathogens – bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and parasitic worms that inhabit in water Ground Water – the freshwater available beneath Earth's surface in rock formations and sediments Desalination – the conversion of salt water into fresh water Aquifer – an underground formation in which groundwater accumulates Water Pollution – occurs due to the presence of physical, chemical, and biological agents that degrade its quality Porosity – refers to the percentage of a rock's total volume that has pores and spaces Waste Water – from industries or homes flows through a series of sewage pipes to reach a treatment plant. Here, the water undergoes filtration and treatment to make it clean and safe for return to the lake or river Permeability – a rock's ability to allow water flow through it Artificial Eutrophication – the overconcentration of nutrients in water bodies due to human activities, such as farming or washing Recharge Zone – a point at which water from Earth's surface reaches down into the aquifer Biomagnification – pollutants increase as one moves higher up the food chain or food web Learning Objectives • Identify how much of the earth’s surface is water and the percentages of salt and fresh 71% of earth’s surface is water 97% is salt water; 77% of the fresh water is available in frozen icecaps, and glaciers • Distinguish between porosity and permeability when it comes to a rock Porosity refers to the percentage of a rock's total volume that has pores and spaces. Rocks with more pores are able to hold more water than those with less. Nonetheless, the ability to hold water is dependent on its permeability, which is a rock's ability to allow water flow through it. Examples of permeable rocks include limestone, sand, and gravel as well as sandstone. In contrast, rocks, such as granite or clay are classified as impermeable because they do now allow water flow. Water flows in permeable rocks from pore to pore. • Explain residential water use, industrial water use and agricultural water use 12 Residential – While the average American consumes approximately 300 L of water per day, a resident of India only uses an average of 41 L of water daily. However, in the U.S., most of the water is used for outdoor activities, such as watering lawns and cars whereas the rest is used for cooking, washing, sanitation, and drinking Industrial – Water is used in various industries to manufacture goods, generate power, and waste disposal. It is a major raw material in manufacturing products, such as 1 kg of aluminum that takes about 1000 L of water. Water is essential for cooling industrial machines Agricultural – 67% of water use in the world is directed towards agricultural activities. Sadly, 80% of this water evaporates before it reaches plant roots • Define water pollution and distinguish between point-source and nonpoint-source pollution Water pollution occurs due to the presence of physical, chemical, and biological agents that degrade its quality. Point-source occur from a single source while nonpoint-source occur from various sources • Understand and explain thermal, groundwater and ocean pollution and their impact Thermal pollution – industries and power plants are the main cause because they often discharge warm water into water sources after using it for cooling Groundwater pollution – occurs when pollutants, such as herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers, percolate through the recharge zone into the aquifers Ocean pollution – 85% begins from inland activities, including toxic wastes, medical wastes, and oil spills. Oceans are also susceptible to polluted runoff that is transported by the various rivers that flow into these oceans. However, ships also legally dump garbage and wastewater in some parts of the ocean Key Concepts • Water is an essential component of life that human beings cannot survive without • Surface water is in rivers and lakes while ground water is beneath Earth’s surface in rocks • Desalination is the conversion of salt water into fresh water • Despite multiple big events, oil spills account for only 5 percent of ocean pollutions Important People/Events • World Health Organization (WHO) Estimates that over 1 billion people do not have access to clean and reliable sources of fresh water • The Clean Water Act The act sought to reduce the pollution of national waters by chemical, physical, and biological agents and make all surface water clean for consumption by 1983 ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 13 – Air and Pollution Key Terms Air Pollution – results from excess accumulation of harmful substances in the atmosphere to unhealthy levels. It is mostly caused by human activities, although natural occurrences, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires are also responsible Primary Pollutant – released directly into the atmosphere by human activity, such as soot from smoke Secondary Pollutant – occur due to a reaction between two different primary pollutants or a reaction between a primary pollutant and a naturally occurring substance like water vapor Smog – a state of poor visibility in a certain area due to chemical reactions in the air between ozone, automobile exhaust fumes, and sunlight Temperature Inversion – a situation where the air above becomes warmer than that near Earth's surface Sick-Building Syndrome – characterized by growth of fungi in the ceilings, air-conditioning ducts, furniture, carpets, and tiles. The fungi can cause allergic reactions in occupants Radon – a radioactive gas that is produced by decaying uranium and is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. It seeps through holes or cracks in foundations and into the homes, offices, or schools where it sticks to dust particles. Inhalation of radon as part of the dust particles can cause lung damage or lung cancer Asbestos – a cluster of minerals in the form of long, thin fibers, which were previously valued for their ability to withstand intense heat 13 Noise Pollution – unwanted noise that is irritating and destructive to the hearing ability Decibels (dB) – a unit of measure for the intensity of sound, the most extreme decibel level that meets the threshold of pain is 120 dB Light Pollution – may not present a direct danger to our health but it still impacts the environment. Light pollution involves a lot of energy waste by using light sources even when they are not required. For example, most billboards and building exteriors direct light up into the sky where it is not needed but instead obstructs a clear view of the sky Acid Precipitation – occurs when sulfuric and nitric acid falls back to Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, or sleet; it is then washed into the nearby bodies of water where it can kill living organisms pH – (power of hydrogen), a measure of acidity or alkalinity Acid Shock – a case where sudden influx of acidic water causes a sudden change in the pH Learning Objectives • Distinguish between primary pollutants and secondary pollutants • Understand the Clean Air Act and how it impacts industries Due to the Clean Air Act, many industries are required to use a scrubber, a machine that helps dissolve pollutants before release into the air. Electrostatic precipitators are another machine commonly used to trap toxic dust particles and allow clean air to escape into the atmosphere. They have been successful in removing 22 million metric tons of ash from coal power plants annually in the U.S. • Distinguish between short-term and long-term effects of air pollution on health Short-term – nausea, irritation to the eyes, headache, tightness in the chest, irritating throat and nose, coughing, and chest pains. These effects are reversible although people who suffer from emphysema and asthma are in even greater danger Long-term – Besides illnesses, such as asthma, emphysema, heart disease, and lung cancer, air pollution, in the long run, can worsen health conditions of older people or damage the lungs of children • Define acid precipitation and what causes it to occur and fall to earth’s surface Acid Precipitation – occurs when sulfuric and nitric acid falls back to Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, or sleet Sulfuric and nitric acid are formed in the atmosphere through a combination of sulfur and nitrogen oxides and water vapor. The sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released during the burning of fossil fuels. • Understand pH (power of hydrogen) and know where it varies geographically The average pH for Eastern Europe and Scandinavia is 4.3 to 4.5. U.S. and Canada is 4.2 to 4.8. With a pH of 4.2, Lake Ontario and Lake Erie experience the most acidic precipitation. Key Concepts • Air pollution results from excess accumulation of harmful substances in the atmosphere • Smog is a state of poor visibility due to chemical reactions in the air • Indoor air, noise and light pollution all have their different impacts on the environment • Acidification can cause acid shock, which can influence a sudden change in the pH • Acid precipitation causes poisoning in humans who consume crops, fish and water Important People/Events • Clean Air Act Amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1990 mandated the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to control vehicle emissions in the United States. The agency rolled out a plan to gradually eliminate use of lead in gasoline and consequently reduced lead pollution by 90 percent. Another success of the EPA was to reduce emission of pollutants by motor vehicles by 35 percent compared to 30 years ago • Canada-U.S. Air Quality Agreement of 1991 An example of a collaboration in which both parties undertook steps to minimize emissions across the Canada-U.S. border. It has resulted in dramatic decreases in sulfur dioxide emissions ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 14 – Earth’s Climate 14 Key Terms Weather – the atmospheric state at a particular time and place Climate – the long-term weather conditions in a particular area on the basis of the records taken Atmospheric Circulation – involves the movement of cool and warm air to and from Earth's surface and atmosphere Prevailing Winds – blow exclusively in one direction throughout the year El Niño – a 6-12 month periodic change in the location of cold and warm water masses in the Pacific Ocean. It is characterized by an eastward pushing of warm water by winds in the western Pacific Ocean, which are often weak. This causes increased rainfall in southern U.S. and equatorial South America while causing drought in Australia and Indonesia La Niña – the opposite of El Niño in that water in the eastern Pacific Ocean becomes cooler than usual Ozone Layer – situated within the stratosphere; an area highly concentrated with ozone, a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is Earth's "sunscreen" that absorbs the sun's harmful UV light and prevents it from reaching Earth's surface Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – were once perceived to be environmentally friendly chemicals because they were non-poisonous, non-corrosive, and non-flammable. However, experts soon discovered that CFCs could damage the ozone layer when released into the stratosphere. Within the stratosphere, each CFC molecule breaks down into 1-4 chlorine atoms. Scientists estimate that one chlorine atom can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules Ozone Hole – a depletion of ozone levels in the stratosphere, which occurs at the North and South poles in the spring Polar Stratospheric Clouds – high-altitude clouds consisting of nitric acid and water as well as molecular chlorine caused by CFCs Greenhouse Gases – gases that absorb and radiate heat; examples include CFCs, carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane Global Warming – a term that refers to the increase in Earth's average temperature in the 20th Century Topography Kyoto Protocol – a bold step towards reducing greenhouse gases by convincing developed countries to reduce greenhouse emissions by an average of 5 percent below their 1990 levels Learning Objectives • Define weather and climate and understand the difference between them Weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere, while climate describes what the weather is like over a long period of time in a specific area • Distinguish and explain the difference between El Niño and La Niña El Niño – eastward pushing of warm water by winds in the western Pacific Ocean La Niña – water in the eastern Pacific Ocean becomes cooler than usual • Explain the Greenhouse Effect and its impact on global warming The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat. The gradual increase in the overall temperature of Earth's atmosphere (global warming) is caused by increased levels of these gases, many of them released by human activity • Understand how meteorologists and other scientists use models to predict weather changes Meteorologists and other scientists use computer models to predict weather changes, including factors, such as temperature and sea level. These models are developed by writing equations representing the atmosphere and oceans after which they enter various data, such as prevailing winds and CO2 levels, among other factors Key Concepts • Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator and is measured in degrees • Changes in temperature and precipitation is caused by the tilting of earth’s axis • The Montreal Protocol was the first step towards trying to protect the ozone layer • Experts predict that global warming will continue to increase in the 21st Century Important People/Events • Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) 15 A 20-30 year change in location of cold and warm water masses in the Pacific Ocean. It affects the climate of North America and the northern Pacific Ocean as well as air temperatures, precipitation patterns, and ocean surface temperatures • The Kyoto Protocol A bold step towards reducing greenhouse gases by convincing developed countries to reduce greenhouse emissions by an average of 5% below their 1990 levels. This was an objective that was supposed to be attained by 2012 but has not been successful because the protocol has not been ratified by 55% of the 160 countries that attended the conference, including the U.S. ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 15 – Land Use and Conservation Key Terms Urban Land – land cover with many buildings and roads Rural Area – land cover with relatively few people and large swathes of open land Ecosystem Services – resources produced by natural and artificial ecosystems. Urbanization – rural-urban migration, which is motivated by the search for better paying job opportunities and better resources Urban Sprawl – occurs when an urban area expands into the countryside around it Heat Island – a common occurrence in urban areas, which have many buildings and roads that absorbs heat and traps it Land-Use Planning – a process of assessing and determining how land will be utilized Geographic Information Systems (GIS) – a computerized system that aids land-use planners to store, manipulate, and view geographic data. It is software that enables users to key in various data about a particular land area, such as location of parks, sewer lines, and roads, which then helps in developing maps Farmlands – land area used for farming Rangelands – refers to a land area that is not used for timber production or farming but supports various vegetation, such as shrublands, deserts, and grasslands Forestlands Deforestation – the removal of many trees within an area without replacing them Reforestation – the process of replacing trees that have been cut down in a particular area by replanting other trees Wilderness – refers to a protected region in which the ecosystem and land are safeguarded from any kind of exploitation Learning Objectives • Define urbanization and the impact that it has had in the United States The urban population reached 75 percent by 1980 and has only slightly increased since then • Understand the geographic information system (GIS) and how it is used • Distinguish between deforestation and reforestation • Explain the benefits and the threats to protected areas for endangered species Benefits – Protected areas ensure that endangered species are secure from extinction. They are also sites of recreation, such as hiking, camping, bird watching, and fishing. Wilderness areas are also a kind of research lab through which scientists learn more about various plant and animal species in these habitats Threats – Protected areas are susceptible to the ravages of climate change, which may disrupt the way of life for the organisms living there. Human activities, such as littering also affect the sustainability of protected areas, such as national parks. Some of these protected areas are dangerously situated near mines, power plants, factories, and urban areas. Key Concepts • Ecosystem services refer to resources produced by natural and artificial ecosystems 16 • Infrastructures in urban areas consist of roads, hospitals, sewers, schools and bridges • The process of assessing and determining how land will be utilized is land-use planning • Deforestation is the removal of tress without replanting and reforestation is replanting trees • Wilderness in the U.S. covers an estimated 13 million hectares Important People/Events • The Dust Bowl of the 1930s Overharvesting and unwise land use resulted in the Dust Bowl of the 1930s • Parks and Preserves Since the 1870s, the U.S. has created approximately 60 national parks to safeguard forest cover in the country. It began when Congress created the first national park in Wyoming and Montana known as Yellowstone National Park. These public lands provide fishing opportunities as well as safeguard endangered species. Globally, there is the Man and Biosphere program created by the United Nations that encourages governments to collaborate with the public in managing public reserves as part of the biosphere reserves program ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 16 – Agriculture and Food Key Terms Malnutrition – can occur due to lack of carbohydrates, proteins and minerals and vitamins as well as a combination of these nutrients Healthy Diet – one that involves the consumption of nutrients, minerals, and vitamins in the right proportions Yield – the amount of food that can be produced in a given area Erosion – occurs when rock and soil is blown away by wind or washed away by water Desertification – when the land becomes desert-like Salinization – refers to the buildup of salts in the soil due to irrigation methods Pesticides – chemicals used to eradicate crop pests, such as weeds and insects Biological Pest Control – refers to the use of other living organisms to control pests Genetic Engineering – a process of modifying the genetic material in a living cell for industrial or medical use Domesticated – to provide humans with food and other raw materials Overharvesting – the removal or catching of organisms at a faster rate than their populations can recover Aquaculture – the raising of aquatic organisms for human consumption Livestock – domesticated animals that are reared for food or sale Ruminants – livestock that have three or four-chambered stomachs Learning Objectives • Describe what makes a healthy diet and how diets change around the world Healthy Diet – one that involves the consumption of nutrients, minerals, and vitamins in the right proportions Compared to the developing regions, people in the developed countries consume a lot of fats and proteins including foods, such as oil and fish • Distinguish between traditional agriculture and modern agriculture • Understand the different types of activity to monitor pest control • Identify the different types of domesticated animals that affect agriculture Key Concepts • A healthy diet is one that involves the consumption of nutrients, minerals and vitamins • Malnutrition commonly affects poor people, most of whom work as farmers • Erosion occurs when rock and soil is blown away by wind or washed away by water • Pest control is critical as pests are one of the greatest threats to food production worldwide • Approximately 50 animal species have been domesticated to provide humans with food Important People/Events 17 • The Green Revolution Occurred between the 1950s and 1970s when Mexico and India successfully increased their production of wheat and rice respectively. These were new varieties of grain that had produced large yields without increasing the farmland area. However, the green revolution did not benefit subsistence farmers most of who are poor and do not have a large farmland area • Farmers Worldwide ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 17 – Earth’s Mineral Resources Key Terms Mineral – a naturally occurring solid that is characterized by a unique chemical composition, unique physical properties, and orderly internal structure Ore Minerals – those that are economical and valuable to extract Evaporites – deposits of salts that are formed when water in the seas or lakes evaporate Subsurface Mining – often used when mining ore deposits located 50 m or more beneath the Earth's surface Longwall Mining – an efficient method of subsurface mining that involves the use of a shearer to mine coal from the face of a coal seam; known as the longwall, the wall of the seam, is used as a conveyor that transports the coal out of the mine, while a hydraulic roof safeguards the miners and the equipment. The movement of the shearer through the coal seam causes the mine roof behind the hydraulic support to collapse Solution Mining – involves the injection of hot water into a soluble mineral ore, such as salt, potash, and sulfur. After injecting hot water, compressed air is pumped into the ore causing air bubbles that enable the minerals to float to the surface Surface Mining – used when ore deposits are situated close to the Earth's surface Placer Mining – Placer deposits are formed from the weathering and disintegration of rock, which releases the minerals within them; deposits of diamonds or gold are often excavated using dredging, a process in which buckets are attached to a conveyor and are used to excavate sediments. Afterwards, the gold and diamond deposits are separated from the sediments before the sediments are disposed of via a conveyor attached behind the dredge Quarrying – a process used for mining building stones, such as marble and granite as well as crushed rock, gravel, and sand known as aggregates. Quarries are also used to produce gypsum, talc, and clay Mineral Exploration Solar Evaporation – commonly used to mine salts especially in arid areas that experience high rates of evaporation. The process involves the filling of shallow, enormous ponds with seawater that contains 2.7% sodium chloride. Exposure to solar energy increases the sodium chloride concentration to 25% after which salt crystals begin to form. Further evaporation leads to the formation of halite or crystalline salt Smelting – the melting of crushed ores at high temperatures to separate the molten metal from impurities Subsidence – the sinking of regions of the ground with minimal or no horizontal movement. It is caused by the collapse of pillars in mines as well as the mine roof or floors. This poses a great risk to infrastructure that have been built over abandoned mines Reclamation – the process of returning mine lands to their original state or even better Learning Objectives • Define mineral and distinguish between metallic and nonmetallic minerals Metallic minerals are ore minerals, such as silver, copper, or gold, which conduct electricity, are opaque, and have shiny surfaces. Other ore minerals are a combination of metallic and non-metallic substances, such as oxygen and sulfur. Nonmetals tend to be good insulators, may have shiny or dull surfaces, and may allow light to pass through them. Nonmetallic minerals can also be native elements or compounds. • Distinguish between subsurface, longwall, solution, surface, placer and undersea mining • Understand the quarrying process and what it is used for in mining • Identify what type of mining is a cause of air and noise pollution 18 Surface mining • Explain the SMCRA of 1977 and how it is important in reclamation of mines SMCRA regulates surface coal mining on private and public land by setting standards to minimize the effects of these activities. It also establishes a fund dedicated to reclaiming water and land resources that have been seriously affected by previous coal-mining activities Key Concepts • Ore minerals form below the earth’s surface during the cooling and hardening of magma • Mineral exploration allows companies to identify areas with plenty of mineral deposits • The smelting process involves the melting of crushed ores at high temperatures • Mining is now one of the most heavily regulated industries in the country • Subsidence is the sinking of religions of the ground with minimal horizontal movement Important People/Events • U.S. Mining Regulations Prevent companies from allowing the emission of dust or noise into surrounding populations. Also dictate that acid-producing rocks should be disposed of in a manner that does not pollute surrounding lakes or rivers • The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977 SMCRA regulates surface coal mining on private and public land by setting standards to minimize the effects of these activities. It also establishes a fund dedicated to reclaiming water and land resources that have been seriously affected by previous coal-mining activities ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 18 – Nonrenewable Energy Sources Key Terms Electric Energy – suitable for powering machines because it can be transported instantly regardless of the distance, but cannot be stored easily and it requires other energy sources to generate it Natural Gas – also known as methane (CH4), has become valued for its production of fewer pollutants compared to petroleum products. It accounts for 20% of the world's nonrenewable energy. It is used today in electric power plants as well as certain automobiles Turbine – a wheel that changes the force of a liquid or moving gas into electrical energy Fossil Fuel – a natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms Coal Formation – in the U.S. began about 300-320 million years ago in the eastern region where there were vast areas of swampland. The rising and falling of ocean levels deposited sediments in these swamplands, which thereafter compressed the plant remains. Pressure within the Earth's crust then led to the formation of coal Oil Reserves – oil deposits that are extracted profitably at present prices using current technology Oil & Natural Gas Formation – began with the decay of tiny marine organisms that accumulated at the bottom of the ocean millions of years ago. These remains were then compressed by sediments after which heat and pressure transformed them into energy-rich carbon-based molecules. After some time, the molecules moved into porous rocks in which they are now contained Coal – a combustible black or dark brown rock consisting mainly of carbonized plant matter, found mainly in underground deposits; constitutes the majority of the world's fossil-fuel reserves, especially in Asia and North America. It is very inexpensive and can be easily refined after being mined. 50% of the electricity generated in the U.S. is from coal-powered power plants Petroleum – also known as crude oil and is pumped from the ground. A petroleum product refers to chemicals, plastics, and fuels that are manufactured from petroleum. 45% of the world's commercial energy use is obtained from petroleum products Retroactive Wastes Oil Deposits – faults, salt domes, and folds that trap the oil as it moves within the crust thanks to their impermeable rocks 19 Nuclear Energy – the energy within the nucleus of the atom, which is over 1 million times stronger than the chemical bonds between the atoms Nuclear Fission – a process in which an atom's nuclei splits into two Nuclear Fusion – created through the combination of lightweight atomic nuclei that forms heavier nuclei and releases large amounts of energy. However, achieving nuclear fusion is difficult because it must be heated to incredibly high temperatures of 100,000,000° C or 180,000,000° F, while being properly confined and kept at high concentrations Learning Objectives • Identify all of main uses of fuel in the world today and how they differ Coal – very inexpensive and can be easily refined after being mined. 50% of the electricity generated in the U.S. is from coal-powered power plants Oil – chemicals, plastics, and fuels that are manufactured from petroleum. 45% of the world's commercial energy use is obtained from petroleum products Natural Gas – accounts for 20% of the world's nonrenewable energy. It is used today in electric power plants as well as certain automobiles • Define coal and how it is used in mining and in the environment Coal – a combustible black or dark brown rock consisting mainly of carbonized plant matter, found mainly in underground deposits Unlike the underground mining of coal, surface-coal mining can cause water pollution when the waste rock from coalmines is poorly contained. This releases toxic chemicals that may find their way into nearby bodies of water • Explain the projections on fossil fuels in the future along with available oil fields Projections that the energy demand in the world will increase by 2050 create expectations that the price of fossil fuels will increase. Geologists predict a decrease in the amount of readily available oil fields by 2025. • Understand nuclear energy and the advantages and disadvantages Nuclear Energy – the energy within the nucleus of the atom, which is over 1 million times stronger than the chemical bonds between the atoms Advantages – releases fewer pollutants, radioactivity, and greenhouse gases than fossil fuel-based energy Disadvantages – construction of safe nuclear reactors is expensive and costs $3,000 per kilowatt of electrical capacity; waste products remain radioactive for many years and thus need a disposal site that is geologically stable; there are safety concerns associated with a poorly designed nuclear plant • Explain the future of nuclear power and why nuclear fusion is safer than nuclear fission Nuclear fusion is a safer alternative to nuclear fission because it produces radioactive products that are less dangerous. It is created through the combination of lightweight atomic nuclei that forms heavier nuclei and releases large amounts of energy. However, achieving nuclear fusion is difficult because it must be heated to incredibly high temperatures of 100,000,000° C or 180,000,000° F, while being properly confined and kept at high concentrations. This is a process that might take years or decades before a nuclear fusion power plant can be successfully constructed Key Concepts • Energy consumption in the U.S. is the highest worldwide outside of Canada and UAE • Petroleum is also known as crude oil and is pumped from the ground • Projections that the energy demand in the world will increase by 2050 • Nuclear energy is the energy within the nucleus of the atom • Nuclear fusion is safer than nuclear fission because it produces less dangerous products Important People/Events • Nuclear Waste Repositories 20 Considering that nuclear energy produces radioactive wastes, finding a safe place to dispose of these wastes is one of its biggest challenges. These waste products remain radioactive for many years and thus need a disposal site that is geologically stable. In the U.S., experts have been exploring the Yucca Mountain in South Nevada as a plausible disposal site for nuclear waste • Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster of 1986 The Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 in the Ukraine shed light on the safety concerns associated with a poorly designed nuclear plant. The engineers conducted an unauthorized test without switching on the reactor's safety devices, which resulted in an explosion that emitted large amounts of radioactive materials into the atmosphere ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 19 – Renewable Energy Sources Key Terms Renewable Energy – energy obtained from sources that can be replenished Passive Solar Heating – involves the use of solar energy to heat objects directly Active Solar Heating – a technology in which solar energy is harnessed by collectors and used for heating water or buildings; today, there are over 5 million homes in the U.S. that use active solar energy for heating water Biomass Fuel – refers to manure, plant materials, and organic substances that provide energy Methane Gas – a byproduct formed when bacteria decompose organic wastes. When burned, it can generate electricity or heat Hydroelectric Energy – a renewable energy resource obtained from moving water. It accounts for 20% of the world's electricity Geothermal Energy – derived from the heat in the water in Earth's crust, which is pumped to the Earth's surface as heated water or steam; this water or steam helps to power turbines that generate electricity Alternative Energy – future energy possibilities that are still being explored for their viability; energy whose source is cost effective and environmentally friendly Tidal Power – energy derived from the tides in the oceans and seas as a result of the gravitational attraction between the earth, moon, and sun; tides occur twice daily and are characterized by the rise and fall of sea levels; energy is harnessed through a tidal power plant that works like a hydroelectric dam Photovoltaic Cells – also known as solar cells, used to convert solar energy into electricity Fuel Cells – produce electrical energy by combining oxygen from the atmosphere with hydrogen fuel in which water is a byproduct Energy Efficiency – the energy percentage put into a system that performs useful work; determined using the equation: Energy Efficiency (%) = useful energy out/energy in X 100 Cogeneration – a fuel-efficient method of energy production in which two useful types of energy are produced from the same energy source Energy Conservation – refers to prudent ways of using energy, such as use of energy efficient devices and wasting less energy Learning Objectives • Describe how wind power and wind farms are becoming common in the United States Wind power has become the most popular renewable energy source due to the cost effectiveness of wind turbines as well as their ease of use. Wind turbines convert moving wind into electrical energy and its world production quadrupled between 1985 and 2000, and continues to grow today. Wind farms are large groups of wind turbines that are becoming common in the United States. They are common in windy rural areas where there are smaller wind farms with approximately 20 wind turbines. Wind turbines take up little space, which allow farmers to use their lands for other purposes. The electricity generated from the wind farms can also be sold to other people. • Identify how geothermal energy and heat pumps energize home and power from the earth 21 A geothermal heat pump takes advantage of the constant temperature beneath the Earth's surface to warm and cool homes. It is a loop of piping that circulates water from underground throughout a home. During summer, the cool temperature of the underground water helps keep the home cool. In the winter, the underground water is used to help keep the home warm. Geothermal heat pumps are used in over 2 million homes in the United States • Explain ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) and how it is useful It is a technology that uses the temperature difference between the ocean surface and its deep depths to generate electricity. OTEC works by using ocean surface water to boil seawater. The boiling water becomes steam and powers a turbine that runs an electric generator. After that, cold water from the ocean turns the steam into water that can be used once again to generate power • Define energy efficiency and how it relates to transportation in America Energy efficiency would be improved by the transition to fuel-efficient power vehicles as well as increased use of public transportation systems Key Concepts • Passive heating works directly with solar energy, while active heating uses technology • There are over 5 million homes in the U.S. that use active solar energy for heating water • Biomass fuel refers to manure, plant materials and organic substances that provide energy • A source that is cost effective and environmentally friendly is called alternative energy • Energy efficiency is the energy percentage put into a system that performs useful work Important People/Events • Fluorescent Light Bulbs Present a great opportunity for improving energy efficiency and can save in energy costs. • Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) A technology that uses the temperature difference between the ocean surface and its deep depths to generate electricity. OTEC works by using ocean surface water to boil seawater. The boiling water becomes steam and powers a turbine that runs an electric generator. After that, cold water from the ocean turns the steam into water that can be used once again to generate power ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 20 – Waste Management Key Terms Solid Waste – any solid material that is disposed of; municipal solid waste is produced by households and businesses Space and Waste – space to dispose of waste Population and Waste – rapid population growth has an evident effect on waste disposal; each person produces an average of 4.4 pounds of solid waste daily in the U.S. Biodegradable – can be broken down by biological processes Landfill – a permanent waste disposal site in which wastes are covered with plastic or soil to prevent the contamination of the environment Leachate – liquid that forms as a result of water seeping down the landfill and absorbing various chemicals from the waste Incinerators – used as an option for reducing the amount of solid waste disposed of in landfills; causes an increase in environmental pollution caused by the emission of toxic gases when the waste is incinerated Source Reduction – a better alternative to incineration and landfills through the reduced production of solid waste, increased use of recycling, and use of alternative products and materials; it is the change in the design, manufacture, and purchase of use of materials to minimize their toxicity levels before they become municipal solid waste Recycling – the process of remanufacturing or reusing products from waste products or scrap Composting – involves the decomposition of yard waste, which mostly contains biodegradable materials; a viable option for managing waste from food processing companies and restaurants as well as municipal sewage and manure from animal feedlots 22 Degradable Plastics – do not disappear completely but simply break down into smaller pieces Hazardous Waste – poses health risks to humans and other living organisms Deep-Well Injection – a land disposal strategy in which hazardous wastes are dumped deep into the ground below the groundwater level where they are absorbed by a dry layer of rock. This layer is then sealed with cement to prevent contamination of groundwater Surface Impoundment – method of disposing hazardous waste by constructing a pond that accumulates the hazardous waste Learning Objectives • Define landfills and understand the problems with and safeguarding of landfills Landfill – a permanent waste disposal site in which wastes are covered with plastic or soil to prevent the contamination of the environment Problems with Landfills – the formation of leachate, which can absorb harmful chemicals; failure to monitor and treat leachate may lead to contamination of groundwater supplies when it flows into aquifers; decomposition of organic waste may also produce methane, which is highly flammable and may seep underground into people’s homes Safeguarding Landfills – landfills must have safety measures, such as plastic or clay linings as well as standards for collection and treatment of leachate; landfills must also have vent pipes to carry methane out and into the atmosphere or for production of energy • Define recycling and understand the series of steps involved in recycling Recycling – the process of remanufacturing or reusing products from waste products or scrap Begins with the collection and sorting out of the discarded materials after which they are taken to a facility for cleaning; it is then manufactured into new products • Explain hazardous waste and the different types of hazardous waste in the environment Hazardous wastes, such as gases, solids, or liquids contain explosive, toxic, or corrosive materials that may harm people’s health • Explain the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Demands that producers of hazardous waste maintain records of how they manage these wastes. This makes them legally responsible for any environmental problems caused by the hazardous waste in the future. Producers of hazardous waste should construct hazardous waste treatment and disposal structures in line with safety standards that prevent these facilities from polluting the environment Key Concepts • Biodegradable products can be broken down by processes, while non-biodegradable cannot • Over half of solid waste is disposed in a landfill which is a disposal site covered in plastic • Recycling is the process of remanufacturing or reusing products from waste products • Chemicals used to manufacture most of the products we use is called hazardous waste • The U.S. produces approximately 252 million metric tons of hazardous waste annually Important People/Events • Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1984 Demands that new landfills must have safety measures, such as plastic or clay linings as well as standards for collection and treatment of leachate; landfills must also have vent pipes to carry methane out and into the atmosphere or for production of energy. Demands that producers of hazardous waste maintain records of how they manage these wastes. This makes them legally responsible for any environmental problems caused by the hazardous waste in the future. Producers of hazardous waste should construct hazardous waste treatment and disposal structures in line with safety standards that prevent these facilities from polluting the environment. • Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act 23 Also known as the Superfund Act, ensures that companies do not illegally dump hazardous waste products. It empowers EPA to sue such companies and to compel them to pay for the cleanup of the hazardous waste. It also sets aside a special fund to pay for the cleanup of abandoned sites for disposing hazardous waste ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 21 – Human Health and the Environment Key Terms Toxicology – the study of the poisonous effects of substances on organisms Dose – amount of pollutant in the body Dose-Response Curve – used to explain the toxicity of a pollutant by displaying the relative effect of various dosage levels on an organism Epidemiology – focuses on how diseases spread Risk Assessment – the evaluation of the health risks posed by a certain pollutant or chemical Particulates – natural pollutants, such as dust and soot, which are tiny enough to be inhaled; causes irritation in the lungs and respiratory conditions Industrial Chemicals – can be toxic, are found in our homes in the chemicals used to make cleaning fluids, furniture paint, carpets, and building materials Waste Disposals – techniques such as burning waste releases toxic fumes into the air; raw sewage is directly released into rivers and lakes Waterborne Discus Cholera – responsible for most infant deaths, especially in developing countries; waterborne diseases caused by consumption of water polluted by human feces Malaria – caused by parasitic protists and transmitted to humans by bites from female mosquitoes Antibiotic Resistance – when pathogens evolve resistance to various antibiotics; can be caused by human actions such as feeding livestock large amounts of antibiotics Pesticides – have caused a variety of health complications Cross-Species Transfers – when pathogens transfer from animals to human beings and cause serious disease Learning Objectives • Explain how human activities have caused pollution and the recent improvements Burning fuels, use of pesticides, industrial chemicals, and poor waste disposal methods have caused pollution. Strict regulations in the U.S. have reduced people’s exposure to pollutants compared to the past. • Understand the environment’s role in diseases, specifically infectious diseases Diseases are caused by pathogens, organisms that cause disease, or by a secondary host in which a pathogen lives all or most of its life such as mosquitoes. Close to 75% of infectious diseases are transmitted through water, especially in developing countries • Distinguish between cholera and malaria and how they can affect humans • Identify what scientists referenced when they made a cross-species transfer Key Concepts • Toxicology is the study of the poisonous effects of substances on organisms • Particulates are natural pollutants that can be inhaled and cause irritation in the lungs • Pathogens that cause cholera and dysentery are responsible for most infant deaths • Malaria was once a leading cause of death worldwide, which is spread by mosquitoes • HIV and the West Nile Virus have made a cross-species transfer from animals to humans Important People/Events • Epidemiologists Try to determine disease origins • Volcano Eruptions Volcanoes can produce large amounts of natural pollutants 24 ____________________________________________________________________________________ Module 22 – Politics, Economics, and the Environment Key Terms Sustainability – a condition in which the present generation uses the Earth’s resources prudently to enable future generations to benefit from the same resources MARPOL – known as marine pollution, prevents large ships from dumping garbage close to shores as well as oil tankers from washing out their tanks; an example of an international agreement that has produced results Private Efforts – businesses and private organizations may boost environmental conservation efforts by donating land for preserves or parks as well as money to various environmental initiatives Economics – the study of choices people make when utilizing and distributing resources Environment Input Statement (EIS) – required for any project or policy that would significantly affect the environment; includes the rationale for the project, its environmental impact, and strategies for minimizing its negative impact Local Governments – bring together locals to discuss environmental issues in town hall meetings; responsible for urban planning, including plans for waste disposal facilities as well as recycling Lobbying – the organized efforts to influence lawmakers’ votes or viewpoints on particular environmental issues Henry Thoreau – conservationist and writer who is renowned for his memoirs about his stay in a cabin at Walden Pond in Massachusetts John Muir – a Scottish naturalist, conservationist, and writer who established the Sierra Club, explored the American West, and fervently advocated for the preservation of the western lands as wilderness; called for increased protection and management of the nation’s resources Theodore Roosevelt – first American president to strongly advocate for environmental conservation and established the Forest Service while expanding national forests by 400%, also pioneered the establishment of the first National Monuments; called for increased protection and management of the nation’s resources Jane Goodall – her study and subsequent book on chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania raised awareness on the plight of endangered species. She also prompted new thinking about primate behavior Jacques Cousteau – a renowned French oceanographer whose various books, programs, and films documented over 40 years of his undersea expeditions Voting – making an informed decision on the candidate that best represents your environmental issues or concerns Consumer Choices – should be influenced by the phrase “reduce, reuse, recycle”; purchase products that are manufactured sustainably and cause minimal damage to the environment, avoid disposing of materials that could still be useful for other activities Learning Objectives • Explain MARPOL and the international agreement that has produced results MARPOL – known as marine pollution, prevents large ships from dumping garbage close to shores as well as oil tankers from washing out their tanks • Describe environmental agencies and laws, specifically the EPA EPA – Environmental Protection Agency, uses regulations and economic incentives to encourage people to abide by the provisions of environmental acts • Define local governments and their impact in local communities • Understand the steps Key Concepts • Economics is the study of choices people make when utilizing and distributing resources • Government agencies must file an EIS for any project that would affect the environment • Lobbying is the organized efforts to influence lawmakers’ votes or viewpoints • Influential individuals whose actions have increased attention to environmental issues • We should be guided by the environmental slogan, “think globally, act locally” 25