Chapter 10 Democracy in America

Chapter 10: Democracy in America The Triumph of Democracy March 4, 1829—Andrew Jackson sworn in as president o Career embodied major developments of his era  Market revolution  Westward expansion  Slavery expansion  Growth of democracy o Symbolized the triumph of political democracy  Came from humble beginnings—orphaned during Revolutionary War What were the social bases for the flourishing democracy of the early mid-nineteenth century? Property and Democracy No state entering Union after original 13th required property requirements for voting o 1860, in older states, all except 1 barred property qualifications The Dorr War Exception to property qualifications for voting was Rhode Island o Must own real estate valued at &134 or rent at $7 per year o Factory production centered economy o Growing class of property-less wage earners unable to vote October 1841—supported of democratic reform organized a People’s Convention o Drafted new state Constitution o Gave right to vote to all adult white men while eliminating full blacks Reformers ratified Constitution in extralegal referendum (referendum: a general vote by the electorate on a single political question that has been referred to them for a direct decision; extralegal: beyond the authority of the law) o Inaugurated Thomas Dorr as governor President John Tyler sent troops to state o Movement collapsed o Dorr imprisoned for 2 years for treason Dorr War demonstrated the passions aroused by the continuing exclusion of any group of white men from voting Tocqueville on Democracy 1840, more than 90% of adult white men eligible to vote Country lacked traditional nationality = democratic political institutions came to define nation’s sense of its own identity Democracy in America: Two works, published in 1835 and 1840, by the French thinker Alexis de Tocqueville on the subject of American democracy. Tocqueville stressed the cultural nature of American democracy, and the importance and prevalence of equality in American life o Account of society in midst of political transformation o Came to study prisons o Realized, to understand America he must understand democracy (disliked—he was an aristocrat) 1 o o Key insight = democracy was more than right to vote or a particular set of political institutions Democracy = “habit of the heart” = culture that encouraged as essential to freedom:  Individual initiative  Belief in equality  Active public sphere populated by numerous voluntary organizations The Information Revolution Market Revolution + political democracy = expansion of public sphere + explosion in printing (“information revolution”) Steam power to newspaper printing = mass circulation and 1 cent vs. 6 cents per paper New York Sun and New York Herald o Introduced new style of journalism, emphasizing sensationalism (crime stories, exposes of official misconduct) 1820s and 1830s, “alternative” newspapers appeared o Freedom’s Journal—first black newspapers o Philadelphia Mechanic’s Advocate—labor publications o The Liberator and Cherokee Phoenix—1st Native American newspaper The Limits of Democracy Democracy central to freedom and nationality = need to define boundaries o 1851, United States Magazine and Democratic Review: “principle of universal suffrage” meant that “white males of age constituted the political nation”  Gender and racial differences were understood as part of a single, natural hierarchy of innate endowments  White males = inherently superior in character and abilities A Racial Democracy Blacks portrayed in theatrical presentations by whites in blackface o Portrayed as stupid, dishonest, and ridiculous Authors portrayed them as stereotypes o Happy slaves prone to superstition or long-suffering but devout Christians Franchise: The right to vote o Revolutionary era: Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia = only ones to explicitly confine vote to whites  Other states made voting difficult for blacks though o 1800—no norther states barred blacks from voting  Every state that entered union after 1800 (except Maine) limited right to vote to white males o By 1860, blacks could only vote in 5 New England states (4% of nation’s free black population) o In effect, race had replaced class as the boundary between free men who could vote  New white immigrant male could vote immediately upon immigration, free blacks who were residents for years could not Nationalism and its Discontents What were the social bases for the flourishing democracy of the early mid-nineteenth century? The American System War of 1812 = national pride Bank of the United States expired in 1811—country lacked a uniform currency o Found it impossible to raise funds for war effort 2 Transportation still primitive o One shipment from New England took 75 days to reach New Orleans  Imported British goods major source of competition to manufacturers John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay (War of 1812 war hawks) believed “infant industries” deserved national protection American System: Program of internal improvements and protective tariffs promoted by Speaker of the House Henry Clay in his presidential campaign in 1824; his proposals formed the core of Whig ideology in the 1830s and 1840s o Idea was originally that of James Madison stated in his State of the Union address in Dec. 1815  Blueprint for government promoted economic development o Plan rested on 3 pillars  1. New national bank  2. A tariff on imported manufactured goods to protect American industry  3. Federal financing of improved roads and canals “Let us bind the nation together with a perfect system of roads and canals”—important to unity o March 1817, on eve of retirement from office, President James Madison vetoed the bill  Changed his mind because allowing government to exercise power not mentioned in constitution would be dangerous to individual liberty and southern interests Two parts did become law: o 1. Tariff of 1816 (did become law despite veto): First true protective tariff, intended to protect certain American goods against foreign competition  Protected American made goods—especially cheap cotton textiles  Supported by southerners—believed it would enable them to develop a manufacturing base to rival New England’s manufacturing o 2. Bank of the United States: with 21 year chapter from Congress Banks and Money 2nd bank resented by public Like 1st bank it: o Was a private, profit making corporation that acted as governments financial agent o Issued paper money o Collected taxes o Paid government debts Charged with making sure other banks issued money with real value o Paper money consisted of notes promising to pay back bearer on demand a specified amount of “specie” (gold or silver)  Often printed more money than gold or silver in their vault  Bank of United Sates was supposed to correct this by preventing over-issuance of money The Panic of 1819 Instead of regulating the printing of money, the Bank of the United States participated in a speculative fever that swept country after end of War of 1812 o Resumption of trade with Europe created huge overseas market for cotton and grain o Rapid expansion of settlement into west o High loan demands for land purchases, especially in South (Cotton Kingdom was expanding)—banks happy to loan so they printed more money Early 1819, European demand for American products declined—economic bubble burst o Banks asked for repayments (state and national) 3 o Farmers and businessmen declared bankruptcy o Unemployment rose in eastern cities Panic of 1819: Financial collapse brought on by the sharply falling cotton prices, declining demand for American exports, and reckless western land speculation States suspended collection of debts by creditors o Kentucky established state bank and flooded state with money that creditors were required to accept in repayment of loans Eased burden on indebted farmers, hurt creditors Deepened American distrust in banks—Second Bank of United States blamed States retaliated against nation bank by taxing its local branches McCulloh v. Maryland (1819): 1819 U.S. Supreme Court decision in which Chief Justice John Marshall, holding that Maryland could not tax the Second Bank of the United States, supported the authority of the federal government versus the states o Reasserted broad interpretation of governmental power: Declared the Bank a legitimate exercise of congressional authority under the Constitution’s “necessary and proper” clause The Missouri Controversy 1816, James Monroe defeated Federalists candidate Rufus King o Era of Good Feelings: Contemporary characterization of the administration of popular Republican president James Monroe, 1817-1825 Two terms in office were one-party government o No two-party competition = politics organized along lines of competing section interest 1819, Congress considered request of Missouri to draft a Constitution in preparation to become a state o NY Republican congressman, James Tallmadge moved that  Further slave introduction be prohibited  Children of hose already in Missouri be freed at 25 years old o Tallmadge’s proposal sparked 2-year controversy—Republican unity shattered along sectional lines  His restrictions passed House (supported by North) Died in Senate o Missouri Compromise: Deal proposed by Kentucky senator Henry Clay in 1820 to resolve the slave/free imbalance in Congress that would result from Missouri’s admission as a slave state; Maine’s admission as a free state offset Missouri’s admission as a slave state  1820, Illinois Senator Jesse Thomas proposed compromise Missouri authorized to draft Constitution without Tallmadge’s restriction Maine (prohibited slavery) would be admitted to Union to maintain sectional balance between free and slave states Slavery would be prohibited in all remaining territory in Louisiana Purchase north of Missouri’s southern boundary Nation, Section, and Party What efforts strengthened or hindered the economic integration of the nation? The United States and the Latin American Wars of Independence 1810-1822, Spain’s Latin American colonies rose in rebellion and established independent nations o Mexico, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru 1825, Spain’s American empire reduced to islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico 1822, Monroe administration become 1st government to extend diplomatic recognition to new Latin American republics 4 Empire crisis in Spanish-American the same as in British -America: trouble when trying to raise financed o Spanish local elites wanted same power as residents in mother country Spanish-American Declaration of Independence borrowed directly from US o 1st issues in 1811 using language very similar to Jefferson o “United Provinces” Latin-American Constitution more democratic that the US o Sought to create a single national “people” out of diverse populations  Extended right to vote to free blacks and Indians o Black participation in wars set in motion the abolition of slavery Latin-American wars lasted longer and were more destructive o More difficult for republics to achieve economic development The Monroe Doctrine John Quincy Adams—James Monroe’s secretary of state o Devoted to consolidating the power of national government at home and abroad o Feared Spain would try and regain its old colonies Monroe Doctrine: President James Monroe’s declaration to Congress on December 2, 1823, that the American continents would be thenceforth closed to European colonization, an that the United States would not interfere in European affairs o 1. US would oppose any further efforts at colonization by European powers in the Americas o 2. US would abstain from involvement in wars of Europe o 3. Warned European powers not to interfere with newly formed independent states of Latin America o Sometimes called “America’s diplomatic declaration of independence” o Claimed US as dominant power in Western Hemisphere The Election of 1824 Sectionalism ruled domestic politics Election of 1824: o Jackson: popular for military victories over British at the Battle of New Orleans and over the Creek and Seminole Indians o John Quincy Adams: Republican leaders insisted it was time for South to relinquish presidency  Support concentrated in New England and North o William H. Crawford (Secretary of the Treasury of Georgia): Wanted party to reaffirm the principles of stats’ rights and limited government  Represented South’s Old Republicans o Henry Clay (Kentucky): popular but support laid primarily in West Jackson won most votes but not a majority of all votes (because there were 4 candidates) o Clay was eliminated o Choice among other 3 fell to House of Representative o House chose Adams, believing he was  Most qualified  Most likely to promote the American System o Clay gave his support to Adams believing Jackson’s election would hurt his own presidential ambitions  Became Secretary of State Charge that he made a “corrupt bargain”—bartering critical votes for public office— followed him and prevented him from becoming president himself Election laid ground work for new system of political parties o Supporters of Jackson and Crawford = Democratic Party 5 o Supports of Adams and Clay = Whig Party of 1830s The Nationalism of John Quincy Adams Most distinguished pre-presidential career (son of John Adams) o At 8, witnessed Battle of Bunker Hill o At 14, worked as private secretary and French interpreter for American envoy in Europe o Served as ambassador to Prussia, the Netherlands, Britain, and Russia o Senator of Massachusetts Adams had a clear vision of national greatness o Supported the American System of government-sponsored economic development o Abroad, hoped to encourage American commerce throughout world (Monroe Doctrine illustrated this) o Enhance American influence in Western Hemisphere o Passionate expansionist: believed US would peacefully absorb Canada, Cuba, and part of Mexico “Liberty Is Power” Adams viewed federal government as very expansive Called for legislation promoting agriculture, commerce, manufacturing and the “mechanical and elegant arts” Plans included establishment of o National university o Astronomical observatory o Naval academy “Liberty is power” o Alarmed strict constitutionalist Spent more time on internal improvements than all 5 predecessors combined Enacted steep increase in tariff rates in 1828 Martin Van Buren and the Democratic Party Jackson supporters: rallying cry for individual liberty, state’s rights, and limited government Martin Van Buren, NY senator began organizing Jackson’s support for election of 1828 o Adams: old politics, son of a president, intellectual accomplishments o Van Buren: represented new political era, son of a tavern keeper Van Buren believed political parties were necessary and desirable o Unlike founding generation who believed they were dangerous and diversive Political parties: o Checked those in power o Offered voters a real chance in elections o Would counteract sectionalism  Brought political leaders from different regions together in support of common candidates and principles o Formed bond of unity in a divided nation Set out to reconstruct Jeffersonian political alliance between Southern planters and plain republic (farmers and urban workers) of North The Election of 1828 By 1828, Van Buren established Democratic Party o Local and state party units overseen by national committee o Network of local newspapers devoted to party and election of Jackson o General commitment to limited government Jackson’s campaign: manliness v. intellect 6 o Jackson could fights, Adams could write Jackson opponents: declared him murderer for executing army deserters and killing men in duels, questioned morality of wife who married him before divorce was finalized Jackson won by landslide—carried South and West + Pennsylvania Jackson’s election was 1st to demonstrate how the advent of universal white male voting, organized by national parties, had transformed American politics The Age of Jackson In what ways did Andrew Jackson embody the contradictions of democratic nationalism? Jackson proclaimed himself champion of the common man o Vision of democracy excluded  Indians—believed they should be pushed west of Mississippi River  Blacks—remain slaves or be freed and shipped abroad o Strong nationalist—believed that states (not D.C.) should be focal point of governmental activity The Party System Politics became series of political contests o Every year there were elections to some office (local, state, or national) o Parades and rallies by political parties o Politicians were popular heroes with mass followings and nicknames  Jackson—Old Hickory  Clary Harry of the West  Van Buren—Little Magician (or Sly Fox to critics) Party machines headed by professional politicians reached every neighborhood o Provided jobs to constituents and ensued voters went to polls Spoils System: The term meaning the filling of federal government jobs with persons loyal to the party of the president o Government posts should be open to the people, not reserved for privileged class o Introduced principle of rotation in office (spoils system) o Loyalisty to party main qualification for jobs like postmaster and customs official Political innovations o Large national conventions to choose national candidates o Every town had its Democratic and Whig newspapers to present party’s position on political issues  Jackson’s kitchen cabinet (informal group of advisors) consisted of mostly newspaper editors Democrats and Whigs Democratic Party Issues (Jackson supporters) o Politics revolved around issues spawned by market revolution and tension between national and sectional loyalties o Alarmed by widening gap between social classes o Warned “nonproducers” (merchants, bankers, speculators) were seeking to use connections with government to enhance wealth to the disadvantage of the “producing class” (farmers, artisans, laborers) o Government should be hands-off toward economy—no special favors to entrench economic interests  Enable the ordinary to fair competition of self-regulating market o Attracted: entrepreneurs (resented government aid to established businessmen), farmers, and city workingmen (suspicious of corporate enterprises), poorer, isolated farming regions, slaveholders (states’ rights protected slavery) 7 Whigs Party Issues o United behind American System believing it could guide economic development with:  Protective tariff  National bank  Aid to internal improvements o Strongest in Northeast—rapidly modernizing region o Supported government-supported economic growth  Established businessmen, bankers, farmers in regions near rivers, canals, and the Great Lakes, and largest Southern planters Public and Private Freedom Party battles of Jacksonian Era reflected clash between “public” and “private” definitions of American freedom and their relationship to governmental power The Democrats: governmental power was a threat to liberty o During Jackson’s presidency, Democrats  Reduced expenditures  Lowered the tariff  Killed the national bank  Refused pleas for deferral aid to internal improvements  By 1835, Jackson managed to pay off nation debt  Result: states replaced federal government as country’s main economic influencer and planned systems of canals and roads, chartering banks and other corporations o Individual morality = private matter (not public concern)  Opposed attempts to unify moral vision of society E.g. “Temperance” legislation: restricted or outlawed production and sale of liquor + laws prohibiting various types of entertainment on Sundays o Liberty = absence of government from private affairs The Whigs: power allied with liberty o Liberty and power reinforced each other o Activist national government would  Enhance realm of freedom  Create conditions for balanced and regulated economic development = general prosperity o Rejected idea that government must not interfere with private life  Freedom (self-directed and self-disciplined) required moral agents and certain character traits o Supported by Evangelical Protestants—believed that “principles of morality could be instilled with  Public education  Building of schools and asylums  Temperance legislation o Local Whig authorities, to shape public morals (during Jacksonian Era)  Banned prostitution  Banned alcohol consumption  Regulated personal behavior South Carolina and Nullification Despite Jackson’s commitment to state’s rights, his 1st term was dominated by a battle to uphold the supremacy of federal over state law 8 Tariff of Abominations: Tariff passed in 1828 by Parliament that taxed imported goods at a very high rate; aroused strong opposition in the South o Raised taxes on imported manufactured goods made of wool, and raw material such as iron o Strongest opposition in South Carolina  No longer believed competition with North in industrial development was possible or desirable  Tariff raised prices paid by Southern consumers to benefit North  State legislature threatened to “nullify it”: declare tariff null and void in their state South Carolina controlled by tightly knit group of large planters o Maintained power with state Constitution that  Gave plantation counties greater representation in legislature than their population warranted  High property qualifications for officeholders o Must weaken federal government before they take action against slavery Calhoun’s Political Theory John C. Calhoun, Vice President in 1828, emerged as leading theorist of nullification South population began to fall behind rest of country o Evolved from nationalist (advocate of political independence) of 1812 into defender of southern sectionalism (loyalty to one’s own region) Exposition and Protest: Document written in 1828 by VP John C. Calhoun of South Carolina to protest the socalled Tariff of Abominations, which seemed to favor northern industry; introduce the concept of state interposition and became the basis for South Carolina’s Nullification Doctrine of 1833 o The agreement with the creation of national government was tat each state retained the right to prevent enforcement of acts of Congress that exceeded explicit powers of Constitution During Jackson’s presidency, VP Calhoun’s influence in administration waned o Secretary of State, Van Buren became Jackson’s closest advisor Eaton Affair: pinned Jackson against Calhoun o Peggy Eaton, wife of Secretary of War  Washington society women ostracized her as “a woman of easy virtue” (sexually promiscuous) because she was the daughter of a tavern keeper o Jackson sympathized—his wife’s morals were questioned during his campaign Webster-Hayne Debate: U.S. Senate debate of January 1830 between Daniel Webster of Massachusetts and Robert Hayne of South Carolina over nullification and states’ rights o Webster: the people, not the states, created the constitution = federal government sovereign (ultimate)  Nullification = illegal, unconstitutional, treasonous The Nullification Crisis Nullification Crisis: the 1832 attempt by the State of South Carolina to nullify, or invalidate within its borders, the 1832 federal tariff law. President Jackson responded with the Force Act of 1833. To Jackson, nullification = disunion 1832, new tariff enacted, rate reduced o South Carolina declared tariff null and void in state after following February Jackson persuaded Congress to pass Force Act o Authorized him to use army and navy to collect customs duties o South Carolina rescinded nullification of tariff  Nullified Force Act Calhoun abandoned Democratic Party for the Whigs o Calhoun, Clay, and Webster became powerful trio of political leaders (although they only agreed on hostility toward Jackson) 9 Indian Removal Act Slave states—onward march of cotton cultivation pressured remaining Indian holdings Indian Removal Act: 1830 law signed by President Andrew Jackson that permitted the negotiation of treaties to obtain the Indians’ lands in exchange for their relocation to what would become Oklahoma o Funds provided for uprooting 5 civilized tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole  60,000 living in North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi o Ridded of Jeffersonian idea that “civilized” Indians should be assimilated into American culture Cherokee had o Established school o Adopted written laws and a constitution modeled after US’s o Become successful farmers—some owing slaves Jackson nullified Cherokee laws Indians went to court to protect rights guaranteed in treaties with federal government o Supreme Court forced to clarify status of American Indians The Supreme Court and the Indians 1823 Johnson v. M’Intosh: court proclaimed Indians were not owners of their land but had “rights of occupancy” o Chief Justice John Marshall claimed in early colonial era, Indians were nomads and hunters, not farmers 1831 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: Marshall described Indians as “wards” of the federal government o Deserved paternal regard and protection but not citizens (which would have forced Supreme Court to enforce their rights)  Justices could not block Georgia’s effort to extend jurisdiction over the tribe Worcester v. Georgia: 1832 Supreme Court case that held that Indian nations were distinct peoples who could not be dealt with by the states—instead, only the federal government could negotiate with them. President Jackson refused to enforce the ruling o Indians were distinct people with right to maintain separate political identity o Must be dealt with by federal government o Georgia’s actions violated Cherokee treaty with Washington o Jackson refused to enforce it—dared John Marshall to enforce it The Trail of Tears: Cherokees’ own term for their forced removal, 1838-1839, from the Southeast to Indian lands (later Oklahoma): of 15,000 forced to march, 4,000 died on the way o Federal soldiers forcibly removed them under presidency of Martin Van Buren 1830s southern tribes departed land peacefully 1835-1842, Second Seminole War: occurred in Florida (sparsely settled) o Ended with Indians being forced to moved west Removal of Indians reinforced racial definition of American nationhood and freedom The Bank War and After How did the Bank War influence the economy and party competition? Biddle’s Bank Central political struggle of Jackson = war on Bank of the United State Bank symbolized hopes and fears of market revolution Expansion of banking helped finance national economic development Many (including Jackson) distrusted bankers o “nonproducers”—contributed nothing to nations wealth but profited from labor of others o Tendency to overissue paper money = reduction in real income of wage earners Nicolas Biddle of Pennsylvania—Bank head 10 o 1820s, Biddle used institutional power to  Stop overissuing of money by local banks  Created a stable national currency o 1832, told Congress that his bank could destroy any state bank  Democrats questioned if any institution (public or private) could hold such power Called it the “Monster Bank”—illegitimate union of political authority and entrenched economic privilege 1832, Biddle’s allies persuaded Congress to approve 20 year extension bill (originally set to expire in 36’) o Jackson saw as blackmail: if he didn’t sign bill, bank would use resources to oppose his reelection o Jackson vetoed the bill  It was unacceptable in a democratic government, for Congress to create a source of concentrated power and economic privilege unaccountable to the people Jackson = defender of “humble” Americans Bank War: Political struggle in the early 1830s between President Jackson and financer Nicholas Biddle over the renewing of the Second Bank’s charter o Reflected how Jackson enhanced power of presidency over 8 years in office  Proclaimed himself the representative of all the people  1st president to Use veto power as weapon Appeal directly to public for support over Congress Jackson won reelection in 1832 over Whig candidate Henry Clay o Victory ensured death of the Bank of the United States Pet Banks, the Economy, and the Panic of 1837 Two different groups supported Jackson’s veto o 1. Soft money: paper currency issues by banks  Advocates: State bankers—wished to free themselves from Biddle’s regulations o 2. Hard money: gold and silver currency (specie) is only reliable form of currency  Opposed all banks Jackson didn’t want to wait for Bank of US to expire in 1836 o Authorized removal of federal funds from vaults and deposit into local banks o Pet Banks: Local bank that received deposits while the charter of the Bank of the United States was about to expire in 1836  Choice of these banks influenced by political and personal connections o Two secretaries of Treasury refused to make transfer  Law creating bank specified that government funds could not be removed except for a good cause as communicated to Congress o Jackson appointed Attorney General Roger B. Taney (loyal Maryland Democrat) to Treasury post  Carried out order  1835, Jackson appointed Taney to Chief Justice as reward Consequences of removal of federal deposits o US lost ability to regulate activity of state banks o Prices rose dramatically  “Real wages (actual value of workers pay) declines o Labor unions emerged—attempt to protect earnings of urban workers o Speculators bought huge blocks of land and resold them to farmers or eastern purchasers The Specie Circular 11 o o o Speculative boom collapsed Government sold 20 million acres of land—paid for in paper money July 1836, Jackson administration issued Specie Circular: gold and silver the only acceptable form of payment for public land o At same time, Bank of England demanded that American merchants pay with gold or silver Economic Collapse o Panic of 1837: Beginning of major economic depression lasting about 6 years; touched off by a British financial crisis and made worse by falling cotton prices, credit, and currency problems, and speculation in land, canals, and railroads  Businesses failed  Farmers lost land—unable to pay mortgage  Urban jobs disappeared Van Buren in Office Forced to deal with depression Hard-money, anti-bank wing od Democratic party came to power Independent Treasury o 1837, announced plan to moved federal funds from pet banks to Treasury Department in Washington o 1840, Congress approved new policy  Completely separated federal government from nation’s banking system o Repealed in 1841 when Whig Party returned to power o Reinstated under President James K. Polk in 1846 The Election of 1840 Van Buren could not hold democratic party together without Jackson’s popularity 1840, Whig opponents mastered political techniques Van Buren helped pioneer o Nominated William Henry Harrison—military fame in War of 1812  “Log Cabin” candidate: champion of the common man o Running mate was John Tyler—states’ rights Democrat from Virginia who joined Whigs after nullification crisis  Ideas opposed to almost all other Whigs but party leaders hoped he could expand base in South Whig success short lived o William Henry Harrison died from pneumonia 1 month after taking office Succeeded by John Tyler o Whig party tried to enact American System into law—Tyler vetoed nearly every measure including tariff and nation bank o Most of cabinet resigned o Party didn’t want to be associated with him o 4 years in office with little accomplishment Without a party behind him, the president could not govern 12