Chapter 4 Slavery, Freedom and the Struggle for Empire

Chapter 4: Slavery, Freedom and the Struggle for Empire Slavery and Empire How did African slavery differ regionally in eighteenth-century North America? Atlantic Slave Trade: The systematic importation of African slaves from their native continent across the Atlantic Ocean to the New World, largely fueled by rising demand for sugar, rice, coffee and tobacco o Later condemned by people as a crime against humanity o 18th century—regularized business between European merchants, American planters, and African traders o Vital part of world commerce o 1st mass consumer goods produced by slaves Sugar, rice, coffee, tobacco Rising demand increased growth of slave trade Atlantic Trade Caribbean remained commercial focus of the British Empire o Britain: manufactured goods to Africa and New World o New World: colonial products to Europe o Africa: slaves to New World Merchants in New York, Massachusetts and Rhode Island were active in slave trade o Shipped slaves from Africa to the Caribbean or southern colonies Slave market of the West Indies were largest for fish, grain, livestock, and lumber exported from New England and colonies In Britain, slave trade and profits stimulated o Rise of ports like Liverpool and Bristol o Growth of banking o o o Shipbuilding Insurance Finance early industrial revolution Free colonists and Europeans—freedom meant power and right to enslave others As slavery became more entrenched so too did the idea of Quaker abolitionist John Woolman—“the idea of slavery being connected with the black color, and liberty with the white” Africa and the Slave Trade Benin (African society) opted out of slave trade Most African rulers took part o Played Europeans against one another o Collected taxes from foreign merchants Kept capture and sale of slaves under their control Slave trade was a source of wealth and gave rise to African Kingdoms Loss of population weakened society and economy  o o The Middle Passage Middle Passage: The hellish and often deadly middle leg of the transatlantic “Triangular Trade” in which European ships carried manufactured goods to Africa, then transported enslaved Africans to the Americas and the Caribbean, and finally conveyed American agricultural products back to Europe; from the late 16th to the early 19th centuries, some 12 million Africans were transported via the Middle Passage, unknown millions more dying en route 1 o Second or middle leg in triangular trading routes linking Europe, Africa, and America 1/5 salves died before reaching New World Ship captains threw sick overboard to avoid spread of epidemics Less than 5% of slaves carried to New World actually stayed in mainland North America o Most went to Brazil or West Indies o High death rate on sugar plantations led to constant demand Chesapeake Slavery By mid-18th century, 3 distinct slave systems were entrenched in Britain’s colonies: o Tobacco-based plantations in Chesapeake o Rice-based plantations in South Carolina and Georgia o Nonplantation slavery in New England and Middle Colonies Chesapeake slaves worked in o Tobacco fields o Teamsters o Boatmen o o o Skilled crafts Women became cooks, seamstresses, diary maids, personal servants Common on small farms and plantations o Nearly ½ of Virginias white families owned at least 1 slave in 1770 Chesapeake hierarchy of freedom o Top: large planters o Lesser planters and landowning yeomen o Bottom: large population of convicts, indentured servants, tenant farmers, slaves Race became a line of social division o Free blacks were dangerous and undesirable Lost right to employ white servants Lost right to bear arms Subjected to special taxes Punished for striking a white person Voting privileges revoked for free property-owning blacks Free blacks sent out of colony The Rice Kingdom Staple crop: Rice and indigo (crop producing blue dye) o Economic development o Large importation of slaves o Divide between races Rice production required large plantations (needed to drain swamps and create irrigation systems) o Planters owned more land and slaves than Chesapeake o Mosquitos bearing Malaria flourished in watery rice fields Slaves developed partial immunity Planters left control to overseers Chesapeake: o Slaves under constant supervision o “Task” system: individual slaves assigned daily jobs, completion allowed leisure time The Georgia Experiment 1732, Georgia founded by philanthropist James Oglethrope 2 o o Wanted to improve conditions for imprisoned debtors and abolish slavery Wanted haven for “worthy poor” of England to have economic opportunity England wanted Georgia because it could protect South Carolina from Spanish in Florida and Indians English colonists fought to repeal a ban on liquor and slavery o Won an elected assembly and the repeal Slavery in the North Unusual for family (even wealthy) to have more than 1 or 2 slaves o Economy not dependent on slave work Slaves worked as farm hands, in artisan shops, as stevedores loading and unloading ships, personal servants Laws less harsh on slaves than the south (less population, less chance of uprising) o marriages recognized by law o severe physical punishment prohibited o o o could bring suits in court could testify against whites own and pass down property Slave Cultures and Slave Resistance Becoming African-American African slaves were diverse (different cultures, languages, religions) o United by slavery itself African Religion in Colonial America Africans believed in spiritual forces in nature and a relationship between the sacred and secular worlds o Colonists deemed their religions superstitious or witchcraft When slaves practiced Christianity, they merged it with their traditional beliefs o God + lesser spirits were worshipped African-American Cultures 3 slave systems produced distinct African-American cultures o Chesapeake o Healthful climate = slaves reproduced their population Large number of yeoman farmers: small landowners (majority of white families in the Old South) who farmed their own land and usually did not own slaves Slaves constantly exposed to white culture Learned English South Carolina and Georgia Rice plantations Extremely harsh conditions Low birth rate o Needed continuous imports of slaves from Africa Rarely encountered whites Constructed African-style houses African names for their children Spoke Gullah (language mixed various African roots) Slaves who labored as servants or skilled workers Liaisons between white owners and slave women o Produced the beginning of a class of free mulattos o North 3 Smaller population Lived in close proximity to whites Enjoyed more ability and access to mainstream life Fewer opportunities to create stable family life or cohesive community (between blacks) Resistance to Slavery Africans linked through experience of slavery Risked lives in effort to resist slavery o Colonial newspapers filled with advertisements for runaway slaves South Carolina and Georgia—fled to Florida to uninhabited swamps or to Charlestown or Savannah where they could pass for free Chesapeake and Middle Colonies—familiar with white culture so they pretended to be free 1712, first slave uprising in New York o Burnt houses and killed first 9 whites who arrived on scene 1730s and 40s, European and Indian warfare opened door to slave resistance Stono Rebellion: Slave uprising in 1739 in South Carolina that led to a severe tightening of the slave code and the temporary imposition of a prohibitive tax on slave imports o Slaves seized opportunity of War of Jenkins’ Ear (England vs. Spain) o New slaves from Kongo seized store containing many weapons o o o Beating drums to attract followers and marched south toward Florida Burned homes and barns on the way shouting “Liberty” Killed more than 2 dozen whites and 200 slaves o Reached Florida and Spain armed them to help repel attack on St. Augustine by Georgia 1741, panic in New York (similar to Salem) that slaves were going to burn city and seize weapons o 150 blacks, 20 whites, and 34 alleged coconspirators (including 4 whites) were executed An Empire of Freedom British Patriotism Greatest naval and commercial power Home to complex government, Parliament representing interests of aristocrats and merchant class War with France in 18th century led to o Large military o High taxes o Creation of the Bank of England to help finance conflicts Britons and colonists shared a sense of identity against foreign foes o Shared songs and sports Britain itself was a realm of widespread prosperity, individual liberty, the rule of law, and Protestant faith The British Constitution British identity centered around concept of liberty Believed power and liberty were natural antagonists, to mediate them: o Advocates of British freedom celebrated rule of law right to liver under legislation that representatives has consented to restraints on arbitrary (random) exercise of political authority rights such as trial by jury balanced constitution (even King subject to law) 4 Republican Liberty Liberty was central to two sets of political ideas (1st set below) o Republicanism: Political theory in 18th century England and America that celebrated active participation in public life by economically independent citizens as central to freedom Only property-owners possessed “virtue”— willing to give up self-interests for greater public good Liberty was public and social o Country Party: support arose from the landed gentry Writings had little impact but devoured by colonists Emphasis on the political role of the independent landowner Warning against constant tendency of political power to infringe on liberty Liberty Freedom Liberty was central to two sets of political ideas (2nd set below) o Liberalism: Political philosophy that emphasized the protection of liberty by limiting the power of government to interfere with the natural rights of citizens Liberty was individual and private Influenced by philosopher John Locke’s (1680) Government was mutual agreement among equals (male head of households) Surrender part of right to govern themselves for benefit f rule of law Retained natural rights (security of life, liberty and property) o Shielded private life and personal concerns from state interference Individual rights Consent of the governed Right to rebellion against unjust or oppressive government The Public Sphere The Right to Vote Britain—voting required property o Men who possessed an economic stake in society and the independence of judgement that supposedly went with it determined the policies of the government o Slaves, servants, tenants, adult sons living with parents, poor and women all lacked “will of their own” and o therefor ineligible to vote 50%-80% of adult white men could vote in colonies vs. only 5% in Britain (property ownership disparities) Voting still restrictive o Jews, Catholics, Protestant Dissenters (Baptist sand Quakers) could not vote o o Propertied free blacks could not vote Native Americans could not vote Political Cultures “The people” only existed on election day Strongly competitive elections were only normal in Middle Colonies Most political power came from those appointed by the crown—not the elected o Laws passed by colonial assemblies could be vetoed by governor or by London Property qualifications for officeholding was high o Ex. Nearly all of South Carolina’s legislators were planters or wealthy merchants “Deference”: the assumption among ordinary people that wealth, education, and social prominence carried a right to public office o Limited effective choice in elections 5 Ex. Virginia combined political democracy for white men with the tradition that voters should choose among candidates from the gentry The Rise of the Assemblies Salutary Neglect: Informal British policy during the first half of the 18th century that allowed the American colonies considerable freedom to pursue their economic and political interests in exchange for colonial obedience o Governors preoccupied with events in England Economic development enhanced power of elites o Assemblies became more assertive Insisted assemblies possessed the same rights and powers as the House of Commons in Britain Successful governors accommodated power of assemblies Used appointive powers and control of land grants to win allies in assembly Conflicts stemmed from o Economic growth Gold and silver coins were scarce (only legal currency) Some colonies printed paper money Opposed by governors, London authorities, British merchants o Land policy o Rent charged to farmers on land owned by crown or proprietors Leaders of assemblies drew on writings of the English Country Party o Emphasis on constant tension between liberty and political power o Emphasis on dangers of executive influence over the legislature Politics in Public “Political nation” was dominated by the America gentry In colonial towns and cities the “public sphere” expanded—the world of political organization and debate independent of government o Informed citizenry openly discussed questions previously discussed only by officials Clubs proliferated in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia o Literary, philosophical, scientific, and political issues were debated Taverns and coffee houses became important sites for debates The Colonial Press Press expanded rapidly in 18th century By the eve of the American Revolution, 3/4 of adult men and 1/3 of women could read and write Circulating libraries spread knowledge more evenly o 1731, Benjamin Franklin established The Library Company of Philadelphia 1704, first continuedly published newspaper: 1728, was the best edited newspaper o Political commentary started appearing Freedom of Expression and Its Limits Freedom of speech originated in Britain in 16th century o Only applied to members of Parliament and their ability to express their views without fear of reprisal On the grounds that this was the only way to represent the people effectively o Outside of Parliament, one could be beheaded for questioning the king and swearing and criticism held criminal penalties Freedom of press was viewed as dangerous by governments Pre-1695, press was censored and publishers needed a license Post-1695, government could not sensor printed material 6 o Paying publishers and authors was government attempt at censorship Could still be prosecuted for “seditious libel” (defaming government officials) Citizens insisted that they has a right to monitor the government and subject officials to criticism Government printing contracts were crucial to economic success o Newspapers rarely attacked government unless paid The Trial of Zenger 1735, John Peter Zenger arrested and tried for seditious libel o His paper accused the governor of corruption, influence peddling, and tyranny o Andrew Hamilton urged jury to judge the governor, not the publisher If charges were correct, he should be acquitted Found not guilty Outcome: idea that the publication of truth should always be permitted The idea of free expression was becoming engrained The American Enlightenment Enlightenment: Revolution in thought in the 18th century that emphasized reason and science over the authority of traditional religion o Philosophical movement that sought to apply the scientific method of careful investigation based on research and experimentation to political and social life Benjamin Franklin: established a newspaper, debating club, and library; published ; conducted experiments demonstrating that lightening is electricity o Believed “reason”, not religion to govern human life Arminianism: taught that reason alone was capable of establishing the essentials of religion Deism: a belief that God essentially withdrew after creating the world, leaving it to function according to scientific laws without divine intervention Miracles and innate sinfulness were now outdated superstitions 17th century, Isaac newton revealed that natural laws governed the physical universe o God’s purest form of handiwork o Deists concluded the best religious devotion was to study of nature’s workings Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were Deists The Great Awakening Religious Revivals Ministers concerned at undermining of religious devotion o Westward expansion o o o Commercial development Growth of Enlightenment rationalism Lack of individual engagement in church services The Great Awakening: Fervent religious revival movement in the 1720s through 1740s that was spread throughout the colonies by ministers like New England Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards and English revivalist George Whitefield o Series of local events united by a commitment to a “religion of the heart”—a more emotional and person Christianity The Preaching of Whitefield George Whitefield sparked the Great Awakening more than anyone else Brought emotional preaching from Georgia to New England Claimed God was merciful and people were not predestined for damnation, they just needed to repent their sins 7 First major intercolonial event The Awakening’s Impact Changed religious configuration Enlarged boundaries of liberty Congregations split into factions o Old Light (Traditionalists) o New Light (Revivalists) New churches proliferated (Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist, ect.) New churches criticized the levy of taxes to support the church Authority was questioned and commercial society was criticized o People should make salvation, not profit o Unworldliness of wealthy planters—sinful activities such as gambling, horse racing, lavish entertainments on the Sabbath Encouraged colonists to trust their own views rather than those of established elites Although revivalists aim was spiritual salvation, the independent frame of mind the encouraged would have significant political consequences Imperial Rivalries Spanish North America Spanish empire stretched from Pacific coast and New Mexico into the Great Plains o On paper, territory was vast Spanish America was sparse—a few small, isolated urban clusters o St. Augustine FL, San Antonia TX, Santa Fe and Albuquerque NM Second half of 18th century, Spain sought to reinvigorate empire North of Rio Grande River o Stabilize relationship with Indians o Alarmed by how many French merchants were coming in from Louisiana o Hoped applying scientific methods would bring progress o But wanted to maintain monarchy Put region under military commander Used coercion, gifts, and trade to woo Indians Settler population was too small o Made fighting English an impossible task The Spanish in California Mid 18th century, Russians from Moscow established forts from Alaska to California to challenge Spain’s fur trade 1769 Spanish launched the “Sacred Experiment” to take control of coast north of San Diego Established religious missions in California o Converted Indians into Spaniards The French Empire Expanded in Canada Emigration from France was not too great o Viewed colonies as a place of cruel exile for criminals and outcasts Posed threat to British colonies o Large arc of territory o Close military and trading relationship with Indians 8 Battle for the Continent Ohio Valley was a struggle for power between British, French, rival Indians communities, settlers, and land companies Middle Ground: A borderland between European empires and Indian sovereignty where various native peoples and Europeans lived side by side in relative harmony o Indians leaned that confrontation with Europeans meant suicide, and alliance with one side put them in danger from the other side 1749, Virginia awarded a half-a-million-acre land grant to the Ohio Company o Sparked bolstered their presence (Seven Years War, aka the French and Indian War) The Seven Years War Seven Years’ War: The last—and most important—of four colonial wars fought between England and France for control of North America east of the Mississippi River 1754, British tried to removed French from their forts in western Pennsylvania George Washington tried to persuade them to leave o Resulted in Washington losing 1/3 of his men and surrendering General Edward Braddock led expedition against Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) o Ambushed by French and Indians and lost 2/3 of his men 1757 British Secretary of State William Pitt raised money and increased men and naval forces o Captured Forts Duquesne, Ticonderoga, Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island o Defeated French on Plains of Abraham o o Seized islands in French Caribbean Took control of India A World Transformed France gave Canada to Britain o In return they got back Guadeloupe and Martinique (sugar islands) Spain gave Florida to Britain o In return they got back the Philippines and Cuba Spain gave France the vast Louisiana colony Britain now owned the entire continent east of Mississippi River Seven Years’ War put France in financial crisis (helped spark French Revolution later) British increased taxes on American colonies to recoup war expenses Pontiac’s Rebellion Pontiac’s Rebellion: An Indian attack on British forts and settlements after France ceded to the British its territory east of the Mississippi River, as part of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, without consulting France’s Indian allies French gave Indian lands to British o Indians confused over land claims, control of fur trade, and tribal relations in general 1763, Indians of Ohio Valley and Great Lakes launched a revolt against British rule Rebellion named after Ottawa war leader but inspired by teachings of Neolin o Neolin: A native American religious prophet who, by preaching pan-Indian unity and rejection of European technology and commerce, helped inspire Pontiac’s Rebellion Pan-Indian identity: All Indians were a single people and only through corporation could they regain their lost independence The Proclamation Line Indians seized 9 fort and killed hundreds of colonists who had intruded on their land 9 Proclamation of 1763: Royal directive issued after the French and Indian War prohibiting settlement, surveys, and land grants west of the Appalachian Mountains; caused considerable resentment among colonists hoping to move west o Colonists enraged because the had defeated the French so they could expand west Ignored new policy Pennsylvania and the Indians Settlers demanded authorities take a more aggressive stance during Seven Years’ Ear o Governor declared war on Delaware Indians o Raised militia o Offered bounty on Indian scalps Assembly Quakers resigned their seats o Effectively ended their control of Pennsylvania politics Paxton Boys o December 1763, 50 armed men from Paxton Pennsylvania destroyed Indian village of Conestoga o 1764, marched on Philadelphia to massacre Moravian Indians Governor ordered expulsion of Indians instead Colonial Identities Albany Plan of Union: A failed 1754 proposal by the seven northern colonies in anticipation of the French and Indian War, urging the unification of the colonies under one crown-appointed president o Drafted by Benjamin Franklin o o Envisioned a Grand Council composed of delegates from each colony Power to levy taxes Deal with Indian relations Common defense Rejected because it would take power away from each colony’s assembly “Americans were never more British than in 1763” (war brought them together) 10