Chapter 8 Securing the Republic

Chapter 8: Securing the Republic Politics in the Age of Passion April 30, 1789—George Washington became 1st president o NY City—nations temporary capital American leaders anxious over organized political parties o Parties considered divisive and disloyal What issues made the politics of the 1790s so divisive? Hamilton’s Program Political division 1st surfaced over financial plan developed by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1790-1791) o Aimed to establish nation’s financial stability o Aimed to bring to the government’s support most powerful financial interests o Aimed to encourage economic development o Long term purpose to make US a major commercial and military power Program had 5 parts: o 1. Establish nation’s credit-worthiness  People would loan money to government by purchasing bonds  Proposed federal government assume responsibility for paying off entire debt from war and outstanding debts of the states o 2. Creation of new national debt  Old debts replaced by new interest-bearing bonds issue to governments creditors Gave men of economic substance a stake in promoting national stability o The stronger and more economically secure the federal government, the more likely it would be to pay off is debts o 3. Creation of a Bank of the United States: Proposed by 1st secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton, the bank that opened in 1791 and operated until 1811 to issue a uniform currency, make business loans, and collect tax monies  Modeled after the Bank of England  Private corporation rather than branch of government  Hold public funds  Issue bank notes that would serve as currency  Make loans to the government when necessary  Return profit to stockholders o 4. Raise Revenue  Proposed tax in whiskey producers o 5. Imposition of a tariff (tax on imported foreign goods) and government subsidies to encourage the development of factories that could manufacture products currently purchased from abroad The Emergence of Opposition Hamilton’s vision of powerful commercial republic o Supported by American financers, manufacturers and merchants  Plan hinged on close ties with Britain (main trading partner) o Alarmed those who believed nation should chart a different path of development Madison and Jefferson—future lied in westward expansion 1 o o Goal was a republic of independent farmers marketing products freely to world Biggest threat to American freedom—alliance of powerful central government with emerging class of commercial capitalists  Capitalism: economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state o Feared national bank and assumption of state debts would introduce American politics to same corruption that undermined British liberty  Enrich the already wealthy at expense of ordinary Under Hamilton’s plan o Speculators (investors) brought up discounted bonds and paper notes that had been used to pay those that fought in revolution or supplied army  Would be paid at face value—large profits  Original holders received nothing o Whiskey tax seemed to single out backcountry farmers to enrich bond-holders The Jefferson-Hamilton Bargain First opposition to Hamilton’s program came from South o Least interest in manufacturing development o Least diversified economy o Fewer holders of federal bonds Hamilton insisted his plans were authorized by constitutions broad “general welfare” clause o South became “strict constructionists”: insisted federal government could only exercise powers specifically listed in constitution Bargain struck o South agreed to Hamilton’s fiscal program (except subsidies to manufacturers) in exchange for establishment of permeant national capital on Potomac River (between Maryland and Virginia) The Impact of the French Revolution 1789 French Revolution o 1793, radical turn—King Louis XVI, aristocrats, and French Revolution opposers executed  War broke out between France and Great Britain Jefferson and his followers believed idea of self-government must be defended at all costs o Enthusiasm for France Washington, Hamilton, and their supporters felt French Revolution raised specter of anarchy “Permeant” alliance with France complicated o April 1793-Washington issued proclamation of American neutrality British soldiers seized American trading ships o Impressment: The British navy’s practice of using press-gangs to kidnap man in British and colonial ports who were then forced to serve in the British navy Jay’s Treaty: Treaty with British negotiated in 1794 by Chief Justice John Jay o No concessions on impressment or rights of American shipping o Britain agreed to abandon outposts on western frontier o US guaranteed favored treatment of British imported goods o Greatest public controversy during Washington’s presidency Political Press Federalist and Republicans: Two increasingly coherent political parties that appeared in Congress by the mid1790s o Federalists: Favored strong central government—led by Washington, Adams, and Hamilton 2       o Favored Hamilton’s economic plan and close ties with Britain Wealthy merchants, farmers, lawyers and political leaders out of South Reflected traditional 18th century view of society (hierarchy and public off reserved for wealthy) Believed freedom did not mean right to stand up in opposition to government Feared “spirit of liberty” = anarchy and “licentiousness” (immoral) May have been the only major party in American history to proclaim democracy and freedom dangerous in hands of ordinary citizens Republicans: Supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution—believed it would safeguard individual freedoms and state’s rights from threats posed by strong central government The Whiskey Rebellion Whiskey Rebellion: Violent protest by western Pennsylvania farmers against the federal excise tax on whiskey, 1794 o Backcountry farmers sought to block collection of new tax on distilled spirits  Reinforced idea that democracy and freedom dangerous in hands of ordinary citizens  Rebels used liberty symbols  Washington sent 13,000 militia men—accompanied them (only time a president command live) The Republican Party Led by Madison and Jefferson Had faith in democratic self-government Alliance with wealthy southern planters and ordinary farmers, urban artisans eventually joined Critical of social and economic inequality Broad democratic participation = essential to freedom Federalists denounce Republicans as French agents, anarchists and traitors Republicans denounced Federalists as monarchists who wanted to transform new government into corrupt, British-style aristocracy An Expanding Public Sphere 1790s—most intense period of partisan warfare 1790s—expansion of public sphere and democratic content of American freedom o More citizens attended political meetings and read pamphlets and newspapers o Establishment of 1,000 post offices circulated personal letters and printed material o Rapid growth of press Democratic-Republican societies: Organizations created in the mid-1790s by opponents of the policies of the Washington administration and supporters of the French Revolution o Nearly 50 formed o Publicized meetings—toasts to American and French liberties  Federalists saw these as liberty getting out of hand Government was authentic voice of people—not societies (Washington) o Societies defended right of people to debate and organize to affect public policy  Political liberty was constant involvement in affairs—not just voting “Exercise watchfulness and inspection, upon the conduct of public officers” The Rights of Women 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft published A Vindication of the Rights of Women o Called for greater access to education and to paid employment  Would enable single women to support themselves  Married women could preform more capably as wives and mothers  Dropped a hint that women should have representation in government 3 Judith Sargent Murray: A writer and early feminist thinker prominent in the years following the Revolution o Wrote essays for the Massachusetts Magazine under pen name “The Gleaner” o “On the Equality of Sexes” (written 1779, publish 1790)  Insisted women had as much right as men to exercise all their talents and should be allowed equal educational opportunities to do so Nothing explicitly limiting the rights in the Constitution to men only Deeping democratization of public life set in motion by Revolution was unexpected but occurred because of: o Rise of political parties seeking to mobilize hotly contested elections o Emergence of “self-created societies” o Stirring of women’s political consciousness o Armed uprising such as Whiskey Rebellion The Adams Presidency How did competing views of freedom and global events promote political divisions? 1792, Washington unanimously won presidency again o Retired from office 4 years later—wanted to show presidency was not a life office Washington’s farewell address—written by Hamilton, published in newspapers o Defended administration against criticism o Wanted against party spirit o Avoided countrymen to steer clear of international power politics by avoiding “permeant alliances with any portion of the foreign world” The Election of 1796 After Washington’s end there was fierce party competition for next president John Adams for Federalists o New England, New York, New Jersey o VP: Thomas Pickney of South Carolina—received 59 votes o Received 71 votes Thomas Jefferson for Republicans o South + Pennsylvania o VP: Aaron Burr of New York o Received 68 votes o Because he had more votes than Pickney, Jefferson became VP to Adams 1797, Adams assumed leadership of divided nation o Although neutral, they were dragged into European war  Claimed rights to trading nonmilitary goods with France and Britain  Both countries seized American ships with impunity (immunity, no liability) o XYZ Affair: Affair in which French foreign minister Talleyrand’s three anonymous agents demanded payments to stop French plundering of American ships in 1797  1797, American diplomats sent to Paris to negotiate a treaty replacing 1778 alliance France demanded bribes before negotiations o Adams made this public knowledge France engaged in “quasi-war” at sea 1800, Adams negotiates peace with France o Less cautious in domestic affairs 4  1799, farmers in southeastern Pennsylvania obstructed assessment of a tax on land and houses that Congress passed to fund expanded army John Fries releases arrested men Army arrested Fries for treason, terrorized his supporters, tore down liberty poles, and whipped Republican newspaper editors The “Reign of Witches” Alien and Sedition Acts: Four measures passed in 1798 during the undeclared war with France that limited the freedoms of speech and press and restricted the liberty of noncitizens o Jefferson referred these to the Salem witch trials—termed “reign of witches” Naturalization Act: extended years of residency requirement (from 5 to 14 years) for immigrants seeking citizenship The Alien Act: allowed for the deportation of persons from abroad deemed “Dangerous” by federal authorities The Sedition Act: authorized the prosecution of virtually any public assembly or publication critical of government—meant opposition editors could be prosecuted for almost any political comment o Targeted at Republican press o 18 men charged, 10 convicted of speeding “false, scandalous, or malicious” info about government  Vermont congressman got 4 months in prison and $1,000 fine The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Legislation passed in 1798 and 1799 by the Virginia and Kentucky legislatures; written by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts. The resolutions advanced the state-compact theory of the Constitution. o Attacked Sedition act as unconstitutional violation of 1 st Amendment o Virginia’s resolution (Madison): called on the federal courts to protect free speech o Kentucky’s resolution (Jefferson): Original draft stated that a state could nullify federal law within their borders that violated the Constitution  Quickly deleted No other states endorsed resolutions o Fear idea of state action that might endanger union “Crisis of freedom” of late 1790s reinforced idea that “freedom of discussion” was essential to liberty and democracy The “Revolution of 1800” Republican campaign of 1800 o “Jefferson and Liberty”—watchwords o Developed effective techniques for mobilizing voters  Printing pamphlets, handbills, newspapers, mass meetings Jefferson, 73 votes Adams, 65 votes Before assuming office, Jefferson endured unusual constitutional crisis o Each party arranged an elector to throw away 1 or 2 of their votes for president  Its presidential candidate would come out ahead of the vice president o Designated Republican elector failed to do so o Result: Jefferson and running mate Arron Burr received 73 electoral votes o Went to House of Reps—35 ballots, neither man received majority vote o Federalist Hamilton voted for Republican Jefferson 12th Amendment: Required electors to cast separate votes for president and vice president 5 Slavery and Politics Revolution of 1800: First time that an American political party surrendered power to the opposition party; Jefferson, a Republican, had defeated incumbent Adams, a Federalist for president o Without 3/5 Compromise, Adams would have won reelection (South supported Jefferson) Despite heated debates on slavery, Congress avoided issue of emancipation The Haitian Revolution Haitian Revolution: Slave uprising that led to the establishment of Haiti as an independent country in 1804 Jeffersonians hailed French Revolution as step in universal progress of liberty Jeffersonians reacted in horror at slave revolution that began in 1791 o France’s main sugar island St. Domingue (modern day Haiti) o Toussaint L’Oiverture led slave uprising  Defeated British trying to seize island from France (British trying to reestablish authority) Affirmed universality of liberty Among American slaves, revolution inspired hopes of freedom Among white Americans, revolution spread fear of slave uprising at home Gabriel’s Rebellion, 1800 Organized by Richmond, Virginia slaves (brothers): Gabriel, Solomon (blacksmiths) and Martin (slave preacher) Planned to march on the state capital from surrounding plantations, kill whites, and take Governor James Monroe hostage until demand for abolition was met Plan discovered—leaders arrested, 26 slaves hung, dozens of slaves transported out of state 1800, ½ of Richmond’s population was black, 1/5 were free o Black community emerged—Gabriel’s Rebellion rooted in institutions o Slave craftsmen hired themselves out—negotiated their own labor terms with masters After rebellion, Virginia tightened control over blacks o Illegal to congregate on Sundays without white supervision o Manumission (voluntary release of slave by master) was restricted: Any slave freed after 1806 must leave state or be resold into slavery Jefferson in Power What were the achievements and failures of “Jefferson’s presidency”? Jefferson assumed office March 4, 1801—first president to being term in Washington Hoped to dismantle Federalist system o Among 1st acts, he pardoned all those imprisoned under Sedition Act During 8 years in office, Jefferson o Reduced number of government employees o Slashed army and navy o Abolished all taxes except tariff o Paid off national debt o Aimed to minimize federal power and eliminate government oversight of economy o Policies ensured US would not become centralized state on European model as Hamilton envisioned Judicial Review Jefferson distrusted unelected judiciary Federalist John Marshall headed Supreme Court o Established courts power to review laws of Congress and the states 6 Marbury v. Madison: First US Supreme Court decision to declare a federal law—the Judiciary Act of 1801— unconstitutional o On eve of leaving office, Adams appointed number of justices of peace for District of Columbia o Madison (Jefferson’s secretary of state) refused to issue commissions (official documents entitling them to assume their posts)  4 sued for the offices o Marshall’s decision declared unconstitutional the section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that allowed the courts to order executive officials to deliver judge’s commissions  Exceeded the power of Congress as outlined in Constitution o “Judiciary Review”: Power of the Supreme Court to determine whether an act of Congress violate the Constitution Fletcher v. Peck: Court extended judiciary review to state laws o 4 land companies paid members of state legislature (2 Georgia senators and number of federal judges) to secure their rights to purchase land in present-day Alabama and Mississippi claimed by Georgia o 2 years later, corrupt lawmakers defeated for reelection o New legislature rescinded land grant and subsequent sales o Marshall declared: Constitution prohibited Georgia from taking any action that impaired a contract  Individual purchasers could keep land  Legislature could not repeal original grant The Louisiana Purchase Louisiana Purchase: President Thomas Jefferson’s 1803 purchase from France of the important port of New Orleans and 828,000 square miles west of the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains; it more than doubled the territory of the United States at a cost of only $15 million o Resulted when Jefferson took advantage of the French defeat by rebellious slaves of Saint Domingue o Jefferson ideologically compromised: believed that federal government was limited to the powers specially granted to it  Purchasing territory from foreign power not listed in Constitution Louisiana Territory ceded to Spain after 7 years war—France secretly got it back o Right to trade through New Orleans was acknowledged in Treaty of San Lorenzo with Spain (1795) o Feared French might interfere with trade Napoleon sold it because he o Needed money for military campaigns o Dreamed of American ruin because of his inability to reestablish St. Domingue Jefferson doubled size of US and ended French presence Admitted he had “done an act beyond the Constitution” o Believed benefits outweighed his transgressions o Wanted to secure America as an agricultural country Lewis and Clark Lewis and Clark expedition: Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark (Virginia born veterans of Indian was in Ohio Valley), a mission to the Pacific coast commissioned for the purpose of scientific and geographical exploration o Scientific exploration: study plants, animal life, and geography o Commercial: study how region could be exploited commercially Jefferson hoped they would establish trading relations with western Indians and locate a water route to Pacific 1804, 50 member “corps of discovery” set out of St. Louis o 15year old Shoshone Indian women, Sacajawea, served as guide and interpreter o Reached Pacific in present day Oregon 7 1806, returned with immense information and plant and animal specimen Incorporating Louisiana Only part of Louisiana Purchase without significant Indian population was region around New Orleans o Population was diverse (8,000 people, 3,000 slaves, 1,300 free blacks) French and Spanish o Gave free blacks almost all of the same rights as whites o Made it easier for slaves to gain freedom through purchase or voluntary emancipation by owners Treaty that transferred Louisiana to US promised all free inhabitants would enjoy the “rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens” o Women recognized as co-owner of family property—American upheld this o Blacks suffered decline in status—slave codes eventually enacted The Barbary War Continuously drawn into European wars o Sought to limit power of national government but foreign relations compelled him to expand it Barbary Wars: 1st war fought by US was to protect American commerce o Barbary states on northern coast of Africa preyed on shipping in Atlantic and Mediterranean o Received tributes from countries including US to protect vessels o 1801, Jefferson refused demands for increased payments o Pasha of Tripoli (modern-day Libya) declared war on US o 1804, Americans won naval war with victory at Tripoli harbor (battle mentioned in Marine Corps anthem) o 1st encounter with Islamic world  Compelled federal government to declare they nation was not founded on Christianity  Started trend of seeing Muslims as exotic people who didn’t adhere to Western standards The Embargo 1806, Britain and France (still at war) each declared the other under blockage o Sought to stop their rivals trade with America 1807, Royal navy resumed impressment—seized more than 6,000 American sailors Embargo Act: Attempt in 1807 to exert economic pressure by prohibiting all exports from the United States, instead of waging war in reaction to continued British impressment of American sailors; smugglers circumvented the embargo, and it was repealed two years later o Jefferson believed economic health required free trade  No foreign government could interfere o Banned all American ships sailing for foreign ports o 1808 exports plummeted by 80%--devastated American economies o 1809 Jefferson signed the Non-Intercourse Act: banned trade from France and Britain only  If they stopped impressment, trade could continue Madison and Pressure for War President #4—James Madison Macon’s Bill No.2: allowed trade to resume but if either France or Britain stopped interfered with American rights, the president would reimpose an embargo on the other o Napoleon of France repealed decrees against neutral shipping (nothing to lose, Britain ruled seas) o Britain continued to attack o Madison re-imposed Embargo on Britain War Hawks: a group of younger congressmen calling for war with Britain o New generation of politicians who came of age after War of Independence—strong nationalists 8    Wanted to defend against British insults Wanted annexation of Canada and conquest Florida (haven for fugitive slaves) Wanted to uphold principle of free trade and liberation from all European infringements on their independence The “Second War of Independence” What were the causes and significant results of the war of 1812? The Indian Response 1800, American settlers west of Appalachian Mountains outnumbered Indians o Some Indians considered assimilation  Group led by mixes Indian-white ancestry endorsed federal policy promoting “civilization” Many were traders and slave owning farmers (help of white fathers) o Infuriated “nativists” Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa: o Tenskwatawa—religious prophet who called for complete separation from whites, revival of Indian culture, and resistance to federal policies  White people were source of all evil in world  Indians should abandon American alcohol, clothing, food and manufactured goods  Followers gathered at Prophetstown on Wabash River, Indiana o Tecumseh—chief who refused to sign Treaty of Greenville in 1795  Traversed Mississippi River arguing alternative to Indian resistance was extermination  Did not associate with chiefs who sold land to federal government  1810, called for attacks on American frontier settlements  1811, America destroyed Prophetstown in Battle of Tippecanoe The War of 1812 War of 1812: War fought with Britain 1812-1814, over issues that included impressment of American sailors, interference with shipping, and collusion with Northwest Territory Indians; settled by the Treat of Ghent in 1814 o Reports that British were encouraging Tecumseh contributed to war June 1812, assaults on American shipping continued o Madison asked Congress for declaration of war  Federalists and Republicans representing New Jersey northward strongly opposed war Most of mercantile and financials resources concentrated here  South and west strongly in favor Bill passed o House 79-49 o Senate 19-13 o 1st American war declared British victories: o War was foolish for America—unprepared nation v. one of world’s two major powers o Britain repelled American attempt to invade Canada o Britain imposed blockade that destroyed American commerce o 1814, Britain defeated Napoleon (France)—invaded US  Seized Washington D.C., burned capitol and white house, government fled for safety American victories: o August 1812—American warship Constitution defeated British warship Guerriere o September 1813—Commodore Oliver H. Perry defeated British naval forces on Lake Erie 9 o Fort McHenry: September 1814—Fort in Baltimore unsuccessfully bombarded by the British  Francis Scott Key composed “The Star-Spangled Banner” o Fighting the British and the Indians  War produced victories over western Indians who sided with British  1813—Indian forces led by Tecumseh (commissioned general in British army) was defeated Tecumseh killed at Battle of the Thames  1814—Andrew Jacksons led Americans and pro-assimilation Indians to defeat hostile Creeks (aka Red Sticks) at Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama Dictated terms of surrender than required Indians to cede more than ½ their land (23 million acres) to federal government  1815—Jackson went to New Orleans and fought off British invasion No side wanted to continue war—signed Treaty of Ghent, ending the war o Signed December 1814—news did not reach American until after Battle of New Orleans o Restored previous status quo  No territory exchanged  No impressment provisions  No neutral shipping rights The War’s Aftermath Jackson’s victory at New Orleans made him a nation hero o Celebrated example of virtuous citizens of a republic to defeat forces of tyrannical Europe War completed conquest of area east of Mississippi River o No more threat from Britain or Indians o White settlers poured into Indiana, Michigan, Alabama, and Mississippi  Brought distinctive forms of social organization with them The War of 1812 and the Canadian Borderland War impacted border between US and Canada o Much of the fighting took place on long-contested region near Detroit and on Great Lakes Great deal of trade developed across Great Lakes and between Vermont and Quebec America’s unsuccessful attacks on Canada during war strengthened anti-Americanism War reaffirmed sense of national identity in America and Canada o Both saw conflict as struggle for freedom  For US—freedom from dependence on Great Britain  For Canada—freedom from domination of the US The End of the Federalist Party Jefferson and Madison succeeded in one major political aim—the elimination of the Federalist Party o Antiwar sentiment at peak in 1812  Madison reelected by narrow margin (128-89) over Federalist opponent Hartford Convention: Meeting of New England Federalists on December 12, 1814, to protest the War of 1812 o Self-inflicted blow to Federalists o Proposed 7 constitutional amendments for officeholding, declaration of war, and admission of new states), but the war ended before Congress could respond o Affirmed right of state to “interpose” its authority if federal government violated Constitution o Did not call for secession of disunion Legacy of Federalist Party o Before dying out, the Federalists raised an issue—southern domination of national government 10 o Country stood on verge of profound economic and social transformation that strengthened the very forces of commercial development that Federalists had welcomed and Republicans had feared 11