Content Category 9A Understanding Social Structure

Foundational Concept 9: Cultural and social differences influence well-being Content Category 9A: Understanding social structure Theoretical Approaches (SOC) Microsociology vs. macrosociology Society – group of people who share a culture and live with each other in a definable area Sociology - attempts to understand the behavior of groups, studying how individuals interact with, shape, and are shaped by the society in which they live Macro-sociologists – interested in how large-scale structures effect individual actions Micro-sociologists – interested on the effects of individuals on the social structure Functionalism • Functionalism (macro)– views the society as a living organisms with many different parts and organs o Championed by Emilie Durkheim, the father of sociology ▪ argued that complex societies involved many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability, a type of dynamic equilibrium o Manifest functions – intended, obvious consequences of a structure o Latent functions – unintended, less recognizable consequences—can be beneficial, neutral or harmful ▪ Manifest function of a hospital may be to heal people, latent function may be to reduce crime by providing jobs Conflict theory • Conflict Theory (macro)– views society as a competition for limited resources o those with most power and influence maintain their positions of power by suppressing the advancement of others o Karl Marx – looked at the economic conflict between different social classes; believed capitalism produced internal tensions that would ultimately lead to self-destruction, replaced by socialism ▪ Ludwig Gumplowicz – expanded Marx’s ideas, proposed society is shaped by war and conquest o Max Weber – did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable; argued that here are more sources of conflict present than just economics, like political power or social status Symbolic interactionism • Symbolic Interactionism (micro)– looks at society from a micro perspective o championed by George Herbert Mead o Interested in the symbols that people use to contribute values and beliefs to others ▪ Ex: dress codes at the workplace can communicate a sense of whether the setting is casual or formal o Holds the principle of meaning to be the central aspect of human behavior ▪ we ascribe meaning to things, language allows humans to generate meaning, etc o Dramaturgical approach – people are theatrical performers and everyday life is a stage Social constructionism Social Constructionism – argues that people shape their reality through social interactions —society is constructed, not inherent • Social construct – concept or practice that is a construct of a group, no internal value o Marriage—exists entirely within human society, containing own specific rules, morals, etc. Exchange-rational choice Rational Choice and Social Exchange Theories • Economics plays a role in sociology—its viewpoint is that individuals make rational decisions o Cost-benefit analysis – individuals make rational economic decisions to minimize costs and maximize benefits • Rational Choice theory – concerned with decisions made between multiple courses of actions, with the decision made providing the greatest reward at the lowest cost • • • o more concerned with measurable resources (extrinsic costs rather than intrinsic, emotional costs) Social Exchange Theory – applies rational choice theory to social interactions o Profit from interaction – reward – punishments o also concerned with emotional rewards and costs, not just economical Methodological individualism – argues that all social realities are the result of individual actions and interactions Fails to consider large-scale structures Feminist theory Feminism • Concerned with differences in social experiences of men and women • Collection of social movements with purpose of establishing men and women as equals in terms of social rights • Glass ceiling – invisible barrier that limits opportunities for the promotion of women in professional contexts • Wage gap – men and women report consistent differences in income Social Institutions (SOC) Social institutions – complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form Ex: family, religions, health care system Education Education Contains both manifest and latent functions • Manifest: passing down knowledge, giving a status • Latent: socialization, social control Helps maintain cultural norms • Hidden curriculum • Hidden Curriculum – lessons learned in school that may not be stated in the lesson plan • Teacher expectancy • Teacher Expectancy Theory – students performs in accordance with the teacher’s expectations o Teachers quickly form expectations of individual students and act toward the student with these expectations in mind o Can help children exceed their own expectations of themselves o Can also underestimate students • Educational segregation and stratification • Education segregation – widening disparity between children from high-income neighborhoods and those from low-income neighborhoods Educational Stratification – a social arrangement that becomes entrenched through educational segregation and is reproduced in new generations of children • Family (PSY, SOC) \ Family Five functions: Reproduction/Sex, Protection, Socialization (passing down norms), Companionship, Social Status Nuclear family – direct blood relations Extended family – grandparents, aunts, uncles, etc Monogamy – two individuals Polygamy – multiple wives/husbands Polygyny – one man, more women Polyandry – one woman, more men Endogamy – practice of marrying within a particular group Exogamy – refers to a requirement to marry outside a particular group • Forms of kinship (SOC) Kinship – how we think about who we are related to • Kin is considered a cultural group rather than a biological one o Can include extended family and members of the community or friends (like godparents and close family friends that are referred to as “aunts” and “uncles” Forms of kinship • Primary kins = next to each other on a pedigree = husband-wife, parent-child, siblings • Secondary kins = separated by one kin on a pedigree = your parent's parent (grandparents), your parent's sibling (aunts/uncles) • Tertiary kins = separated by two kins on a pedigree = your parent's sibling's children (cousins) • • Bilateral descent – if kin groups involve both maternal and paternal relations o preference for paternal and maternal relations is called patrilineal and matrilineal descent • There are two basic kinds of kinship ties: those based on blood ties that trace descent and those based on marriage, adoption, or other connections. • Diversity in family forms • • • Patriarchy – Men have more power Matriarchy – Women have more power Egalitarian family – spouses are treated as equals • • • Marriage and divorce Violence in the family (e.g., child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse) (SOC) • • Child abuse – involves violence directed toward child target o four categories: physical, emotional, sexual, and neglect Domestic abuse – also referred to as spousal abuse, involves violence directed toward one partner of an intimate relationship, where the abuser is the second partner Elder abuse – involves violence directed toward an older target o Added element: there is an expectation of trust from the older person, which is violated in the course of violence Religion • Religiosity • Religiosity – refers to the extent of influence in a person’s life • Types of religious organizations (e.g., churches, sects, cults) Forms of religious organization: • Ecclesia – dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions (like Iran, where Islam is the official state religion) • Church – a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society. Membership tends to occur by birth, but most churches allow people to join. If independent of the state, is known as a denomination • Sect – a religious organization that is distinct from that of a larger society, often occurring by breaking away from larger religious institutions (Mormons, Amish) • Cult / New religious movement – religious organization that is far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different lifestyle (Branch Davidians, Heaven’s Gate) Five major world Religions: • Christianity – largest faith in the world, about 30% of the population across the globe, 80% of people in the US • Islam – second largest religions in the world, 20-25% of world population, often do not separate church and state • Hinduism – developed in India, polytheistic, 14% of world population, belief in reincarnations • Buddhism – based on teachings of Siddhartha, believe in overcoming cravings for physical or material pleasures primarily through meditative practices • Sikhism – monotheistic religion, believes in one god and the teachings of the ten Gurus • Judaism – formed the historical basis for Christianity and Islam; believe that God formed a covenant with Abraham and Sarah, and that if certain rules were followed (Ten Commandments), God would bring paradise to earth • Religion and social change (e.g., modernization, secularization, fundamentalism) Modernization – the transformation from traditional social structures to more rational or economics-driven ones Classic sociologists predicted that as societies became more modern, there would be a decline in religious practice in favor of more rational thought • Secularization – process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies Fundamentalism – second response to modernist societies in which there is strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices • argue that religions should be an integral part of social life • Ex: Westboro Baptist Church Government and economy • Power and authority Forms of Authority • Rational-Legal Authority – legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the Constitution • Traditional Authority – power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice • Charismatic Authority – leaders are powerful due to their charisma • Comparative economic and political systems Forms of Government: Aristarchic governments – controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power • Aristocracies – ruled by elite citizens, like those with noble births • Meritocracies – ruled by the meritorious Autocratic governments – controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with absolute decision-making power • Dictatorship – ruled by a single person • Fascist – ruled by a small group of leaders Monarchic governments – controlled by a single person, or a selective small group who inherited their leadership role, like kings and queens How leadership is elected: Authoritarian governments – consists of unelected leaders; public has no control over representation • Totalitarianism – unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control Democratic governments – consists of elected leaders • Direct democracies – governments in which there is direct public participation • Representative democracies – governments in which there is indirect public participation through the election of representatives • political parties – formal groups of people that share the same principle political beliefs and organize with a common purpose of ensuring governance that supports these principle through appropriate policies Oligarchic governments – leaders can be elected or unelected; controlled by a small group of people with shared interests • people have little influence in directing decisions and social change • Ex: Theocracies – governments ruled by a religious elite Structure of Governments Republican governments – consider their countries to be public concerns, are democratic in nature Federalist governments – include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups • There is the division between the central government, or the federal government, and the constituent governments, or the state, provincial, and local governments Parliamentary governments – include both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature Presidential governments – also include organizing branches, as well as a head of state Other political concepts: Anarchy – refers to societies without a public government Economics – concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of resources, both goods and services • Command economies (planned economies) – economic decisions are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public) o include socialism and communism • Market economies – economic decisions are based on the market (supply and demand) and the means of production are often private o include laissez-faire and free market economies • Mixed economies – blend elements of command and market economies with both public and private ownership o public oversight of private production, like in the US • Traditional economies – consider social customs in economic decisions o common in rural areas and often involves bartering and trading Capitalism – economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit. Driving force is the pursuit of personal profit Socialism – economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit). Driving force is collective goals, and economy is usually centrally controlled an run by the government • Communism – specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, classes, and states, based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies Most nations incorporate both capitalist and socialist ideas Welfare capitalism – system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society. Most countries in Western Europe demonstrate welfare capitalism because most of their economies are based on capitalist principles, but universal health care is provided by the state State capitalism – system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations. For example, in the US< most businesses are privately owned, but the government runs many operations, such as schools, the postal service, and the military. Professions – highly esteemed white-collar occupations that require a great deal of education. • Division of labor Division of labor – occurs as societies become so complex that it is not possible for an individual to meet all of his or her needs alone; different occupations emerge as a response Two forms of solidarity in relation to economic approaches • Mechanical solidarity – allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience o • individuals share a collective conscience, which presumes the existence of a greater social order that guides individual actions through shared beliefs, morals, and values o common in primitive, traditional societies, like agricultural societies Organic solidarity – allows society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; thus, each movement is distinguishable and separate o arises out of the need of individuals for one another’s services o common in advanced, modern societies Health and medicine • Medicalization Medical model of disease – emphasizes physical or medical factors as being the cause of all illness Medicalization – process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment • Looks for the ultimate cause of a person’s illness (bacterium) Social model of disease – emphasizes the effect one’s social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person’s health While someone working from the perspective of the medical model might look for the ultimate cause of a person’s illness (bacterium), someone working from the social model would be attuned to a more proximate cause—something about the patient’s life circumstances that put him at greater risk of exposure to the bacterium • The sick role Sick role – concept developed by sociologist Talcott Parsons; when a person is ill, he is not able to be a contributing member of society. Being ill is a type of deviance. Others must consider the person’s illness to be legitimate to take up the extra work. The sick person should seek medical care and make an attempt to get well. • implies a passive patient and an authoritative physician • Delivery of health care Delivery of health care in the US is accomplished by teams of health-care providers with different training backgrounds and specialty areas, such as physicians and nurses of all specialties, hospitalists, social workers, etc. • Primary care – describes care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management • Secondary care – includes acute care (emergency department), as well as specialty care, which is often received following a referral from a primary care provider • Tertiary care – very specialized form of health care, based on consultations with specialist care providers and often occurs in facilities designed just for the purpose of caring for patients with a limited set of conditions o Ex: cancer hospitals, burn centers, and end-of-life care facilities • Illness experience • illness experience – takes the patient’s subjective experience of illness as its main concern; encompasses both the individual’s understanding of his or her condition as well as the material impact being ill has on that person’s daily life • Social epidemiology Social model of disease – emphasizes the effect of one’s social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors • looking for a more proximate cause (something about patient’s life causes that puts him/her at greater risk of exposure to bacterium) Social epidemiology – field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence, and distribution of disease across and within populations Food desert – area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores On a macroscopic level, first-world countries have a greater focus on treating chronic conditions, while lower-income nations focus more on treating acute conditions Culture (PSY, SOC) Culture refers to a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares Elements of culture (e.g., beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, values) Language – symbolic system that is codified for communications Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – asserts that people understand their world through language and that language in turn shapes how we experience our world High culture – often limited to the consumption of the elite, like ballet or opera Cultural icons – signs that represent their meaning in a given culture (single crystal glove is representative of MJ) Cultural universals – patterns or traits that are common to all people (food and shelter, birth, death, illness) Values – culture’s standard for evaluating what is good or bad Beliefs – convictions or principles that people hold Norms – visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society Material vs. symbolic culture (SOC) Symbolic culture consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture; include rituals, gestures, signs, and words that help people within a society communicate and understand each other (wedding ring, statue of liberty, etc) Material culture – involves physical objects or artifacts (clothing, hairstyles, food, design of homes) Non-material culture – specific to social thoughts and ideas, such as values Culture lag (SOC) Cultural lag – when the creation of new social rules lags behind new innovation (Material culture changes faster than symbolic) Culture shock (SOC) Culture shock – when disorientation is the result of individual being subjected to alternative cultures or foreign environments Reverse culture shock – involves same experiences, but upon an individual’s return to initial environment Assimilation (SOC) Assimilation – process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture Common concept that comes up: more assimilated groups will have lower levels of support and worse overall health. Strong social support in local immigrant communities may partly explain the relatively good health of individuals from some immigrant groups in the US (when compared to US born individuals with otherwise similar demographic characteristics. more assimilated groups are likely to have less social support over time Multiculturalism (SOC) Multiculturalism (pluralism) – perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions, promotes idea of cultures coming together in a melting pot, not a hierarchy. Each culture able to maintain its practices Subcultures and countercultures (SOC) Subcultures – segment of society that shares a distinct pattern, differs from that of the larger society (bike enthusiasts) Counterculture - a way of life and set of attitudes opposed to or at variance with the prevailing social norm. Mass media and popular culture (SOC) • • Mass Media/Tehcnology – television, cell phones, educational programming (can be positive or negative) Popular culture – describes features of culture that appeal to the masses, often communicated through mass media like TV Evolution and human culture (PSY, BIO) Sociocultural evolution – set of theories describing the processes through which societies and culture have progressed over time Transmission and diffusion (SOC) Cultural transmission – the process through which this information is spread across generations, or the mechanisms of learning • meme – element of culture that spreads from person to person; cultural transmission is concerned with how this occurs • much transmission occurs through socialization processes Cultural diffusion – transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another; can also occur within a single culture, leading to some similarities across different levels of society • • transmission = vertical = passing culture down from generation to generation diffusion = horizontal = spreading culture to other places. Eg: westernization of the world.