Chapter 1 Understanding Sociology

Chapter 1 Understanding Sociology Inside What Is Sociology? What Is Sociological Theory? The Development of Sociology Major Theoretical Perspectives Taking Sociology with You Careers in Sociology 3 A Look Ahead How did sociology develop? How does sociology differ from other social sciences? Who were the pioneers of sociology? What are the different theoretical perspectives in sociology? What is the “sociological imagination,” and why is it important? 4 What Is Sociology? Sociology: the scientific study of social behavior and human groups. Sociology focuses on: • Social relationships. • How those relationships influence human behavior. • How societies develop and change. 5 The Sociological Imagination Sociologists rely on a particular type of critical thinking that C. Wright Mills described as the sociological imagination. • Defined as an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past. • A key element is viewing society from an outsider’s perspective. • We go beyond personal experiences to understand broader public issues. 6 Sociology and the Social Sciences 1 Science: the body of knowledge obtained by methods of systematic observation. Natural science: the study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change. Social science: the study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change. 7 Sociology and the Social Sciences 2 Social sciences include: • • • • • • Sociology. Anthropology. Economics. History. Psychology. Political science. The common focus is on the social behavior of people. 8 Sociology and the Social Sciences 3 Sociologists study: • The influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior. • The ways people interact and shape society. Examples: • The reasons many Americans deny that climate change is occurring or feel that human activities are not responsible. • How the impact of climate change is not evenly felt. • Episodes of extreme violence and hatred. • How to respond to disasters such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and hurricanes Harvey and Irma in 2017. 9 Sociology and Common Sense Commonsense knowledge is not always reliable. Sociologists believe information must be tested, recorded, and analyzed. Scientific studies are used to describe and understand the social environment. 10 What Is Sociological Theory? Theory: a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behaviors. Effective theories can be explanatory and predictive. Theories are not final statements about human behavior. Émile Durkheim developed a theory to explain how an individual behavior—suicide—can be understood within a social context. • Sociologists continue to study factors that contribute to differences in suicide rates around the world. 11 The Development of Sociology Philosophers and religious authorities in ancient and medieval societies made observations about human behavior. In the 19th century, European theorists made pioneering contributions to the development of a science of human behavior. 12 Early Thinkers 1 Auguste Comte (1798 to 1857): • Believed in the need for a theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of behavior. • Coined the term sociology. Harriet Martineau (1802 to 1876): • Wrote the first book on sociological methods. • Work emphasized the impact that economy, law, trade, health, and population could have on social problems. 13 Early Thinkers 2 Herbert Spencer (1820 to 1903): • Hoped to understand society better, not improve it. • Applied Darwin’s work on evolution of species to societies to explain how they change over time. • Adapted the “survival of the fittest” argument, saying it is natural that some people are rich and others are poor. 14 Émile Durkheim (1858 to 1917) 1 Appointed as one of the first sociology professors in France. Argued that behavior must be understood within a larger social context. Key interest focused on the consequences of work in modern societies. • Anomie: the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective. • Occurs during time of profound social change. • People lose sense of purpose and direction. Was also concerned about alienation, loneliness, and isolation in modern industrial societies. 15 Émile Durkheim (1858 to 1917) 2 Key Works: The Division of Labor in Society (1893). Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897). Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912). The Art Gallery Collection/Alamy Stock Photo 16 Max Weber (1864 to 1920) 1 Weber argued that to comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions. Verstehen: German word for understanding or insight. Ideal type: model, or construct, for evaluating specific cases. Weber’s work was a response to the work of Karl Marx. 17 Max Weber (1864 to 1920) 2 Key Works: The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism (1904 to 1905). Economy and Society (1921). Keystone Pictures USA/Alamy Stock Photo 18 Karl Marx (1818 to 1883) 1 Marx argued that society is divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of their own interests. • Owners versus the workers. • Economic, social, and political relationships allowed owners to maintain power and dominance over workers. With Friedrich Engels (1820 to 1895), produced The Communist Manifesto. • Masses of the people, the proletariat, should overthrow capitalist societies. 19 Karl Marx (1818 to 1883) 2 Marx’s writings inspired others who would later lead communist revolutions in Russia, China, Cuba, and other countries. His work emphasized how group identifications can influence an individual’s place in society. 20 Karl Marx (1818 to 1883) 3 Key Works: The Communist Manifesto (1848). Das Kapital (1867). Everett Historical/Shutterstock 21 W. E. B. DuBois (1868 to 1963) 1 DuBois was an early Black sociologist in the United States. He argued that knowledge was essential to combat prejudice and achieve tolerance. • Advocated research on the lives of Blacks in the United States. • Helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Double consciousness: division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities. 22 W. E. B. DuBois (1868 to 1963) 2 Key Works: The Philadelphia Negro (1899). The Negro Church (1903). Souls of Black Folk (1903). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG- ppmsca-38818] 23 Twentieth-Century Developments 1 Charles Horton Cooley (1864 to 1929): • Used the sociological perspective to study face-to-face groups such as families, gangs, and friendship networks. Jane Addams (1860 to 1935): • Cofounded the Hull House. • Worked to establish a juvenile court system and a women’s trade union. 24 Twentieth-Century Developments 2 Robert Merton (1910 to 2003): • Developed a key theory to explain deviant behavior. • Emphasized the need to bring together macro-level and micro-level sociological approaches. Macrosociology: focuses on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations. Microsociology: focuses on small groups. Mesosociology: studies formal organizations and social movements. Global sociology: makes comparisons among nations. 25 Twentieth-Century Developments 3 Pierre Bourdieu (1930 to 2002): • Wrote about the different forms of capital. • Capital sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next. Cultural capital: noneconomic goods that are reflected in knowledge of language and the arts. Social capital: the collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust. 26 Major Theoretical Perspectives The three most widely used perspectives in sociology: • Functionalist perspective. • Conflict perspective. • Interactionist perspective. 27 Functionalist Perspective 1 Functionalist perspective: emphasizes how the parts of society are structured to maintain social stability Talcott Parsons (1902 to 1979): • Key sociologist in the functionalist perspective. • Viewed society as a network of connected parts. • Each part helps maintain the social system. 28 Functionalist Perspective 2 Manifest functions: the open, stated, and conscious functions of institutions. Latent functions: the unintended consequences of an institution. • May reflect hidden purposes. Dysfunctions: elements or processes of society that can disrupt the social system or reduce stability. 29 Conflict Perspective Conflict perspective: assumes social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources. Forms of tension can include: • • • • Labor negotiations. Party politics. Competition for religious group membership. Budget disputes. 30 Conflict Perspective—The Marxist View Based on the work of Karl Marx. Conflict is now viewed as a part of everyday life. Conflict theorists: • Focus on how social institutions maintain privilege and subservience of different groups. • Emphasize social change. • Emphasize the redistribution of resources. • Are more radical than functionalists. 31 Conflict Perspective—Feminism Feminist perspective: inequity in gender is central to all behavior and organization. The focus tends to be on the macro level. Women’s subordination is inherent in capitalist societies. Intersectionalities: the interlocking matrix of domination. • Multiple social factors—such as race, gender, age, sexual orientation, and religion—help determine privilege and lack of privilege. 32 Conflict Perspective—Queer Theory Queer theory: the study of society from the perspective of a broad spectrum of sexual identities, including: • Heterosexuality. • Homosexuality. • Bisexuality. Foucault wrote that what is acceptable human sexuality varies between cultures and periods of time. Sedgwick argued that analyzing society is incomplete without including sexual identities. 33 Research Today: The Third Place 1-1 The Third Place: • Third place: a social setting in addition to the “first place” of home and the “second place” of work. • Think about acceptable third-place behavior. In what types of situations do people tend to separate by race, class, or gender in third places? • What third places do you visit regularly? Are some more public places than really third places? 34 Interactionist Perspective 1 Interactionist perspective: generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole. Humans are viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects, including: • • • • • Material things. Actions. Other people. Relationships. Symbols. 35 Interactionist Perspective 2 Symbols are especially important to this perspective. • Central to communication. • Have a shared meaning among all members of society. Nonverbal communication: gestures, facial expressions, and postures. • All express meaning. 36 Interactionist Perspective 3 George Herbert Mead (1863 to 1931): • Founder of the interactionist perspective. • Wanted sociologists to focus more on the micro level of behavior. Erving Goffman (1922 to 1982): • Developed the dramaturgical approach, in which people are seen as theatrical performers. • Compared everyday life to the settings of the theater and stage. • Presentation of self in public and private settings. 37 The Sociological Approach Sociologists draw on multiple perspectives to best understand society. Each tends to favor one approach over others. A sociologist’s theoretical orientation influences his or her approach to a research problem. • What to study. • How to study it. • What questions to pose. 38 TABLE 1-2 MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Concept Functionalist Conflict Interactionist View of Society Stable, well integrated Characterized by tension and struggles between groups Active in influencing and affecting everyday social interaction to perform societal functions by power, coercion, and authority create their social worlds through interaction View of the Social Order Maintained through cooperation and consensus Maintained through force and coercion Maintained by shared understanding of everyday behavior View of Social Change Predictable, reinforcing Change takes place all the time and may have positive consequences Reflected in people’s social positions and their communications with others Example Public punishments to reinforce the social order Law reinforces the positions of those in power People respect laws or disobey them based on their own past experience Proponents Durkheim, Parsons, Merton Marx, DuBois, Wells-Barnett Mead, Cooley, Goffman Table divided into four columns summarizes three major Level of Analysis Macro, meso, global The Macro, meso, globalheaders Micro—as are a way of understanding sociological perspectives. column marked Emphasized the larger social phenomena left to right as: Concept,Stratification Functionalist,Symbols, conflict, and Key from Concepts Dysfunctions nonverbal communication, face-to-face interaction interactionist. View of the Individual People are socialized People are shaped People manipulate symbols and 39 Research Today: Sports 1-2 Looking at Sports from Five Sociological Perspectives: • Have you experienced or witnessed discrimination in sports based on gender, race, or sexual identity? If so, how did you react? Has the representation of Blacks, women, or gays on teams been controversial on your campus? In what ways? • Which of the five sociological perspectives seems most useful to you in analyzing sports? Why? 40 Taking Sociology with You Applied sociology: the use of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations. Clinical sociology: dedicated to facilitating change by altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions. Basic sociology: seeks a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspect of social phenomena. 41 Developing a Sociological Imagination This edition of Sociology: A Brief Introduction illustrates the sociological imagination in several different ways and in several different domains: • • • • • Theory in practice. Research today. Our wired world. Thinking globally. The significance of social inequality—the condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. • Speaking across race, gender, and religious boundaries. • Social policy throughout the world. 42 Sociology in the Global Community 1-3 Influencers Worldwide: • Influencer: a social media user who has established credibility in a specific industry, has access to a huge audience, and can persuade others to act based on his or her recommendations. • Who do you consider to be important influencers? In what fields do they exercise influence? • What are the potential consequences if an influencer sponsors a company’s products? Can this happen without followers’ being aware of the sponsorship? 43 Careers in Sociology The number of students with sociology degrees has risen steadily. Sociology degrees: • Provide a strong liberal arts background for entry-level positions in many types of organizations. • Require accomplishment in oral and written communication, interpersonal skills, problem solving, teamwork, organization, data analysis, and critical thinking. • Are beneficial for a wide range of occupations. • Are excellent preparation for future graduate work in sociology. 44