Organizational Analysis •Open-systems thinking •Congruence model •Organizational forms •What about the “organization of the future”? Open Systems View • Organizations must strive to fit into their environments and exploit their competencies by transforming inputs into outputs in order to “succeed” • Exploiting competencies means that there is alignment or congruence between strategy (how we succeed) and physical, financial, & human resources • Yet organizations must also be able to look ahead, explore, adapt, change, and shape their environment • Individuals within organizations are also exploiting and exploring and balancing work and life • No “one best way” !! Congruence Model (Nadler & Tushman) Transformation Process Environ. Resources History Informal Org’n St ra te gy Inputs Task Formal Org’n Outputs Org’n Group Individual People Feedback Grouping and Linking • The most basic organization is to divide up labor in some way • We can group people and tasks together in various ways, e.g., by task structure, or by customer type, or by geography • Transfer of materials and information is easier within group • Interdependent groups must be linked • Groups must be aligned or controlled Task Interdependencies Pooled Sequential Reciprocal Grouping by Function or Product HEADQUARTERS Staff Maintenance Outsource Engineering HQ Industrial Products Engineering Manufacturing Marketing Manufacturing Marketing Staff Consumer Products Engineering Manufacturing Marketing The Rationale for Hierarchy Layer Time Span Felt Fair Pay (90s) CEO EVP VII 20yrs $1,040,000 VI 10yrs 520,000 V 5yrs 260,000 IV 2yrs 130,000 Unit Manager III 1yr 68,000 Supervisor II 3mos 38,000 Technician I 1day 20,000 EVP EVP President Gen’l Mgr Traditional View of Organization: Henri Mintzberg Six Basic Parts of the Organization |||||||| |||| Coordinating mechanisms: ||||| | || 1. Direct supervision 2. Standardization of work ||||| ||||| ||||| ||| || ||||| |||| |||| | | | ||| Middle Line Support Staff || ||||||||||||||||||| ||||||||||| |||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||||| |||||||||| |||||| | ||| | | Technostructure ||| | Operating Core ||||||||||||||||||||||||| |||||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||| | | | | | | |||| |||||| ||||| | || Strategic Apex || | | ||| ||| | |||| ||| | || | ||| |||| | ||||||| |||| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| Ideology 3. Mutual adjustment 4. Standardization of outputs 5. Standardization of skills 6. Standardization of norms ||||| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| Which coordinating mechanism is best? -Startup => Direct supervision -Big company (GM) => Standardization of outputs -Hospital (MGH) => Standardization of skills -Research lab (LAI, Draper) => Mutual adjustment MIT is a Matrix Design President Provost Center Director Center V-P Research Director Center Director Dean Dean Dean Dept Head Dept Head Dept Head Faculty Faculty Faculty Project Teams 1. Functional Team Functional Manager Eng Mfg Mkt Team Member 3. Heavyweight Team Market 2. Lightweight Team Liaison Project Manager 4. Autonomous Team Market Grouping and Linking • Forms change with time • More complex environment leads to more need for internal complexity • Craft Æ Mass Prod Æ Mass Mkt Æ R&D are getting more coordination intensive • Core technology gets more complex, but support departments can fit their technology, e.g., accounting • Organizations may change as they grow and mature, but may be “imprinted” with their founding conditions, unable to change Information Processing Demands More Linkages As task/technology increase in complexity, the need to process information increases: • • • • • all-to-all communication explodes hierarchy, rules, plans, SOPs help self-contained tasks, slack resources new communication technologies lateral relations, networks San Diego Zoo • Old zoo managed by 50 departments: animal keeping, horticulture, maintenance, food service, fund raising, education,… • As the zoo remodels by bioclimactic zone, each is run by a team, e.g., Tiger River, an Asian jungle, has a 7 person team of mammal and bird experts, horticulturalists, maintenance and construction workers, & tracks its own budget • Ownership, efficiency, innovation, cross-training Alignment • • • • • • The San Diego Zoo example also shows how individuals and groups create alignment with organizational goals: Measure team-level outcomes that support organizational goals Reward team-level outcomes consistent with organization goals Career paths are coherent for all levels Information systems support team work Training and development Socialization, shared values and culture (how much at team vs. organizational levels?) Organize By Processes • Business Process Reengineering and others suggest organizing by “process” or “groups of related tasks that work together to create a valued result” • Each process has a process owner and customers • Any company has 6-10 such processes, often unrecognized, such as order fulfillment, order acquisition, procurement, demand creation, product development, plan to produce • Customer-oriented, outcome-oriented, crossfunctional, work-oriented rather than people NetCentric and Disaggregated • IT makes communication less costly, so all-to-all networks are possible • Companies become internal markets, exchanging goods and services at a price; individuals become contractors • Company boundary disappears with outsourcing, up to the “shell company” and open source development • Boeing is now a “system integrator” • Cisco Systems owns 2 of 34 plants that produce its product, 90% of orders come in without an employee’s efforts, 52% filled without employee • Al Qaeda is a “netcentric” organization The rise of networks... means that conflicts may increasingly be waged by "networks" perhaps more than by "hierarchies". It also means that whoever masters the network form stands to gain the advantage. -- John Arquilla & David Ronfeldt, Networks and Netwars (Rand, 2001)